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Metaphor: Imagery Devices Used by Morgan to Describe Organizations as Culture and Psychic Prisons

This article demonstrates the practical applications of metaphors in diagnosing problems and developing new theories in organizational development. Metaphors are defined as imagery tools that provide insight to complex issues, thus advancing the study of organizational change. They are liberating in orientation and provide fresh perspectives to both new and existing phenomenon. Metaphors benefit organizations by describing shared reality in organizations. In his book, Images of Organizations, Morgan used metaphors to describe organizations as cultures and psychic prisons. His use of metaphor provides a perspective of the unconscious factors that affect organizations. This article compares Morgan’s use of metaphor to biblical principles, thus giving a biblical perspective.

Metaphor is a valuable imagery tool used by organizations to provide clarity to complex issues by offering non-literal meaning to describe real situations (Morgan, 2006). Morgan posited that metaphor provides one-sided insight describing organizations and, while their use is “incomplete, biased, and potentially misleading,” they create new ways of seeing things and provide opportunities for new theories (p. 5). This article examines Morgan’s use of metaphor to describe organizations as cultures and psychic prisons and identifies the biblical context of these metaphors. Metaphor is a literary tool that is liberating in orientation by supplying a new way to shape perception. It provides insight and can be used by organizations to diagnosis and treat problems within the organization (Grant & Oswick, 1996). Morgan said that metaphors are “a way of thinking and a way of seeing” (p. 4), as well as a cognitive process in which literal meaning to words is applied to give non-literal meaning. They influence our values and beliefs and therefore legitimize policies and authority (Charteris-Black, 2005).

This article also discusses the benefit of metaphors to organizations. Specifically, it addresses the benefits of understanding the metaphors organizations as culture and organizations as psychic prisons to leaders and managers. Metaphors are instrumental at identifying and facilitating change within organizations (Marshak, 1996). Managers can use the meaning gained by metaphor to more effectively manage change and create shared reality within their organizations.

Metaphor: As Persuasive Discourse

Metaphors are used throughout society (Morgan, 2006). They facilitate communication and are influenced by a society’s culture. According to Morgan, their origin and the use of metaphor in communication can be found in early Egyptian hieroglyphics.

Metaphor

The process that metaphor shapes and, in turn is shaped by, society is evolving in nature. A society’s culture is shaped by the values, beliefs, ethos, traditions, and attitudes of the people within it. The people in a society communicate by assigning similar meaning to words or phrases—metaphors (Morgan, 2006). Metaphor in turn influences beliefs, values, and attitudes by communicating the meaning of a metaphor (Trim, 2007).

Metaphor is a characteristic of persuasive discourse (Charteris-Black, 2005). Morgan (1996) posited “metaphor as a primal, generative process that is fundamental to the creation of human understanding and meaning in all aspects of life” (p. 228). According to Charteris-Black, it mediates between conscious and unconscious means of persuasion and between cognition and emotion. Metaphor influences our beliefs, values, and attitudes by providing unconscious emotional associations to words or phrases that we equate to as being good or bad (Charteris- Black). Charteris-Black defined it as:

a linguistic representation that results from the shift in the use of a word or phrase from the context or domain in which it is expected to occur to another context or domain where it is not expected to occur, thereby causing semantic tension. (p. 14)

History

Metaphor creation happens suddenly; however, the time it takes for common use between societies varies (Trim, 2007). Morgan (2006) used the word structure throughout his book to describe organizations. Metaphor creation and evolution can be understood by examining the metaphor structure. The etymology of structure is heap up, build. Over time, society began to describe things that were heaped up or built as having structure. The structure metaphor was created to describe things that had order or a definite form. Thus, when Morgan used organizational structure, it is understood to describe a definite form of an organization.

Metaphor creation appears to be a timeless process that has been traced back to the time of Egyptian hieroglyphics (Trim, 2007). Cognitive linguists concluded that the same mechanisms used to create metaphors existed thousands of years ago. People have been creating relationships between a word or words and non-literal meaning to convey a culture’s conceptualized meaning. For instance, a bull’s head was the symbol for “rage” in hieroglyphics. Today, bulls are still used to signify anger and rage. Many images have maintained the same interpretation that they had since antiquity. Images that do not possess strong conceptual links may cause problems for interpretation (Trim).

Metaphor: Liberating in Orientation

Metaphor is a process in which one aspect of an experience is crossed over to another (Morgan, 1996). As a process, it entails combining language and thought to develop new non- literal meaning that when applied shapes and enhances our reality (Grant & Oswick, 1996). It is a powerful educational tool because it advances our knowledge and understanding (Grant & Oswick). Metaphors provide meaning to everyday experiences and are epistemological since they provide a frame from which we can view the world (Morgan). They provide us with a way of understanding that offers an opportunity to be innovative and have the ability to clarify complex issues (Morgan). Metaphors help us see things in a new way and that is why they are liberating in orientation (Grant & Oswick).

Provide Meaning

Metaphors as imagery devices provide meaning to deepen understanding in all aspects of life (Morgan, 1996). As Morgan explained, meaning occurs when we overlap associations from one experience to another. Our human nature is to seek understanding and provide meaning to our experiences. Metaphor provides meaning by causing unconscious emotional associations that influence our values and beliefs (Charteris-Black, 2005).

Morgan (2006) used the metaphor organizations as culture to evoke a reaction from the reader so he or she may find symbols of culture in his or her organization. To recognize these symbols, leaders and managers can ask: What are our values? What are our beliefs? What symbols or slogans do we associate with it?

Metaphor provides a liberating orientation by giving individuals a way of associating and discussing what things are and what they mean. Management writers, Peter and Waterman “emphasize[d] that successful organizations build cohesive cultures around common sets of norms, values, and ideas that create an appropriate focus for doing business” (as cited in Morgan, 2006, p. 137). They illustrated this in their book, In Search of Excellence, by showing core values of three companies: “IBM means service,” “Never kill a new product idea” (3M), and “Sell it to the sales staff” (Hewlett Packard; Morgan, p. 137). These metaphors demonstrate the shared meaning in organizations through their slogans.

An Investigative Tool

Metaphors, when applied to new or existing phenomenon, have the ability to uncover complex organizational theory or behavior (Grant & Oswick, 1996). They can be used to diagnose and treat organizational problems (Grant & Oswick). Leaders frequently need to evaluate phenomenon in their organization. Metaphor provides a way that they can look at existing or new problems and gain insight. The deductive and inductive approaches are two ways that leaders and theorists can use metaphor as an investigative tool.

Deductive approach. The deductive approach involves three phases: choosing a metaphor, imposing a particular organizational phenomenon, and determining if it offers something of value (Grant & Oswick, 1996). The deductive approach identifies metaphors and, if used correctly, can be a valuable tool for leaders to gain insight to phenomenon.

Morgan (2006) described an issue with integration that is caused by a division of labor as a problem of “cultural management” (p. 117). Cultural management is an example of a deductive metaphor. Here Morgan suggested the metaphor organization as culture. Early theorists developed theories regarding organizations in the two categories of metaphors: rare skills and organizations (Grant & Oswick, 1996). The study of rare skills is a metaphor regarding division of labor. The anthropological study of organizations focused on the development of organizations (Grant & Oswick). Morgan’s cultural management metaphor is assigning meaning to an organization phenomenon—integration—to describe the problem caused by division of labor.

Inductive approach. In contrast, the inductive approach involves a conscious attempt to find underlying metaphors that are in use and determine if they influence the “ways of thinking and seeing” (Grant & Oswick, 1996, p. 10). Morgan (2006) used metaphors such as public attitude, out to get us, and the enemy to describe anxiety experienced by groups (pp. 211-214). These metaphors can help leaders understand the mentality of employees in organizations.

Using the inductive approach to gain understanding of the loss of production or increased anxiety, leaders need to identify what is causing the problem (Morgan, 2006, p. 224). For instance, a leader may realize production is down and not understand why this is occurring. Upon further research, it appears that employees are concerned with “the enemy.” This term may be used so frequently in an organization that leaders miss opportunities that impact the organization. Morgan noted that “the enemy” was used by automobile manufactures to describe their reaction to Japanese and other Asian companies entering the market. As Morgan indicated, the relevance of this metaphor to leaders is they need to understand how its use points to issues within the organization. Leaders hearing “the enemy” used in their organization may need to identify what concerns employees really have. Is this affecting individuals or groups? Is this affecting productivity? Is this an opportunity for innovation? What role does the leader have in combating fears? The initial reaction to the enemy may have been negative, but a leader who understands its influence on the organization can use this as a positive.

Morgan (2006) discussed how culture shapes the character of organization. American corporations are known for their competitive nature from the standpoint of individuals and as an entire organization. American corporate cultures typically have systems for reward and punishment to recognize exceptional behavior in companies. In regard to management, Morgan explained the ethic of competitive individualism is shaped by culture (p. 122). Using the inductive approach, a leader could use the metaphor competitive individualism to discover or gain insight to phenomenon related to reward and punishment in an organization. A characteristic of transactional leadership is using reward and punishment to achieve goals (Yukl, 2006). Leaders that understand competitive individualism can evaluate the effectiveness of their reward and punishment practices.

As Innovation

Morgan (2006) posited that metaphors provide one-sided insight describing organizations and, while their use is “incomplete, biased, and potentially misleading,” they create new ways of seeing things and provide opportunities for new theories (p. 5). Metaphors represent partial truth and are weak in literal meaning yet their strength is in their ability to explain complex organizational behavior (Morgan, 1996). The caution with metaphors is they cannot be taken too literally or their value will be lost (Trim, 2007). Also, metaphors are not objective because they rely on the interpretation of the individual. If used correctly, metaphors can provide insight to organizations (Morgan).

According to Morgan (2006), the power of metaphors is their ability to frame complex thinking and challenge innovative reasoning. For instance, if you consider organizations as cultures, you are focused on the concepts related to the values, beliefs, knowledge, and ethos that make up society. Similarly, if you consider organizations as psychic prisons you are focused on concepts related to unconscious influences. In this regard, metaphors help leaders expand their knowledge or identify issues by causing them to disregard other concepts of organization. Each chapter of Morgan’s book discusses complex organizational issues from different one-sided viewpoints. Thus, he creates a new way of seeing which provides the opportunity to gain insight. For leaders, metaphor provides opportunities for innovation.

The psychic prison metaphor illustrates how individuals and groups can become stifled in their way of thinking. Unconscious factors limit their ability to think outside the box (Morgan, 2006). Morgan discussed how “the last thing a fish is likely to discover is the water it is swimming in” (p. 209). For an organization to change, it needs to recognize the need for change and not be irrational toward the idea of change. Morgan posited that the strength of the psychic prison is it forces leaders to identify rational and irrational behavior toward change. Thus, metaphors create environments conducive to innovation.

Clarity to Complex Issues

Morgan (2006) noted that effective managers become skilled at understanding the situations in organizations that they manage. Metaphor helps managers by providing clarity to complex organizational issues (Grant & Oswick, 1996). Metaphor can also help leaders effectively communicate with subordinates regarding complex issues.

Morgan (2006) described how individuals or groups can be unconsciously influenced at work by concerns about immortality and death. These unconscious thoughts can be complicated for managers to understand and know how to manage. According to Morgan, people make decisions at work that are guided by their conscious and unconscious concerns about immortality. He pointed out that many organizations are designed to survive for generations. He explained that people set up systems in organizations as a way to have control. Thus, bureaucracy provides defined functions within an organization. Bureaucracy, systems, and structures are some of the ways that people try to control their mortality.

Metaphor in this case helps managers understand how unconscious factors influence individual and group decisions. For instance, managers can gain insight regarding time management if they understand why people spend or do not spend time on certain activities (Morgan, 2006). Morgan noted that some activities at work may be highly valued because they are designed to leave a legacy. Individuals that believe in leaving a legacy may focus more effort on these activities.

Legitimates Policies and Authority

In organizations, metaphor legitimizes policies by providing meaning to “underlying social and cultural value systems” (Charteris-Black, 2005, p. 14). Metaphors influence our unconscious emotional associations (Charteris-Black). Thus, metaphor helps define what we believe to be legitimate. In organizations, it is critical that policies and authority have legitimate power (Yukl, 2006).

Corporate culture provides legitimacy and authority in organizations (Charteris-Black, 2005). Morgan (2006) described an insurance company’s corporate culture after going through a traumatic period in which the president of the company was replaced. The new president tried to create a team atmosphere by encouraging an environment of harmony. The president created imagery of harmony and teamwork by using a wagon wheel to signify these concepts.

Unfortunately, the corporate culture did not support his ideas. The president’s efforts resulted in creating a culture that was repressive. People felt the need to hide their feelings to be a team player. In the end, the repressive environment caused the company to fail because important issues were overlooked or ignored. The creation of subcultures also resulted. Thus, he was not able to gain legitimate power and was not able to turn the company around.

Metaphor: Scriptural Context

Metaphors influence our values, beliefs, and attitudes (Morgan, 2006). Metaphors transcend time and can be validated by scripture. Morgan used metaphors to describe phenomenon in organizations. This paper illustrates how metaphors can or cannot be supported scripturally.

Scripturally Supported

Morgan (2006) used the metaphor organizations as psychic prisons to discuss the effects of unconscious influences in organizations. The metaphor also serves to provide a new way of understanding an individual’s reactions in everyday life. The hidden dimensions of reality influence how individuals cope, understand, and gain insight (Morgan). The metaphor explains the underlying human behavior.

The Bible tells the story of a very rich man named Nabal (1 Samuel 25:1-42, NKJV). He had 3,000 sheep and 1,000 goats. Nabal was a rude and belligerent man whose shepherds worked in the Wilderness of Paran. David realized that the men were in the wilderness and protected them. In return, he asked one of the shepherds to ask Nabal if he could spare any food or drink in exchange for their protection. Nabal refused to do so. He did not share the same gratitude that his shepherds had for David.

Nabal’s wife, Abigail, recognized the mistake made by her husband. She went to David with food and drink, begging that he allow her to rectify the mistake made by her husband.

David agreed and Abigail returned home. She realized her husband was drunk and did not share with him what had happened until he was sober. His reaction to the story made her realize that his heart had become like stone.

The metaphor psychic prison explains how leaders can become trapped in their own thoughts and how this influences their behavior. Nabal had become self-centered and could not see the opportunity before him. Abigail, on the other hand, realized the importance of giving provisions to David. In organizations, leaders and managers need to be able to recognize opportunities and not allow personal issues to influence their work.

Another example of metaphor supported by scripture is from organization, death, and immortality. Morgan (2006) explained that people’s actions in organizations demonstrate their awareness of mortality. People create systems and structures in organizations that are meant to last for many years. Often, people will focus their energy on completing activities that will leave a legacy. Ecclesiastes 9:7-18 instructs us to work joyfully, hard, and wisely even though the results are unknown.

Ascriptural

Morgan (2006) discussed competitive individualism and the influence of individuals and groups in organizations to strive to be number one (p. 122). The metaphor competitive individualism is influenced by our values and beliefs, but it is not supported by scripture.

Another example by Morgan (2006) discussed manipulation on organization and their negative effects on individuals. Morgan uses the metaphor corporate newspeak to describe how culture can control an organization and fail to reflect human character (p. 146). This form of manipulation results in resistance, resentment, and mistrust (Morgan).

Not Supported by Scripture

Morgan (2006) discussed how groupthink can cause individuals to become trapped in their way of thinking. The story of Nebuchadnezzar (Daniel 3:1-30) addresses this issue. In this passage of scripture, Nebuchadnezzar erected a 90-foot high golden statue and ordered everyone to bow down before it whenever they heard the sound of horns. Anyone that did not bow down was sentenced to death. Three people disagreed with the law and encouraged the king, as well as the crowd, to reconsider it. Groupthink is a phenomenon of organizations, but the Bible does not support its use.

A second example of metaphor not supported by scripture involves the prevailing idea regarding psychic prisons. Psychic prisons help leaders understand unconscious factors that prevent leaders and subordinates from being more creative or innovative. This metaphor helps leaders understand the need for insight and wisdom. This creates a paradox according to Proverbs. Proverbs 2:1-5 states that we should strive to gain wisdom and understanding. Proverbs 3:5 reminds us to “not lean on your own understanding.” According to scripture, we should seek wisdom, but lean on God for understanding.

Metaphor: Benefits to Organizations

This article has presented examples of metaphor as a valuable tool for increasing understanding and identifying problems. It is important to discuss prevailing schools of thought and how metaphors influence organizational theory and change. Morgan (2006) posited a strength of organizations as culture is it conceptualizes organizational change. It shows how changing organizational values and images is part of the process of change. Many examples of metaphors as an imagery device have been supported referencing Morgan’s book Images of Organizations. It is also important to discuss how organizations benefit from understanding organizations as culture and psychic prisons.

Cognitive, cultural, and unconscious or psychoanalytical schools of thought have been instrumental in providing understanding of how metaphors guide organizational theory and change (Marshak, 1996). These schools provide the foundation to understand how governing beliefs and schemata influence our thinking (Marshak).

Organizational Change

The cognitive school. The cognitive school advanced theories related to problem-solving and adaptive behavior in individuals and organizations as influenced by conscious schemata (Marshak, 1996). Schemata can influence creativity and innovation which is instrumental for organizational change (Marshak). According to Marshak, the common metaphor for this school is “organizations as learning systems” (p. 148). Problems related to organizational change are identified by evaluating “existing assumptions, beliefs, theories-in-use, and paradigms” (p. 148). Problem solving can also occur by identifying the problem, evaluating existing solutions, and then looking for innovative solutions (Marshak).

The cultural school. Organization theorists from the cultural school believe organizational behavior is influenced by collective beliefs or cultures (Marshak, 1996). Marshak posited that governing beliefs are assumed to be expressed symbolically through “myths, stories, rituals, and metaphors” (p. 149). Culture is believed to be a multi-layered system of beliefs that influences organizational behavior (Marshak).

Morgan’s metaphor organization as culture has concepts and theories that are from the study of organizational theory and change (Morgan, 2006). For instance, corporate culture and subculture occur because of a need for change within an organization’s culture (Morgan). This may occur from a significant event in the company such as the change in leadership or from an external event such as new entrant into a market. Other factors that may affect organizations are new technologies, markets, and competitors (Marshak, 1996).

The unconscious or psychoanalytical school. The unconscious or psychoanalytical schools provide theories regarding the “unconscious influence [of] perception, meaning, and action in organizations” (Marshak, 1996, p. 149). Theorists from the psychoanalytical school posited individual or organizational change can occur if unconscious schemata are understood and addressed. Many of the theories were influenced by ideas from Freud and Jung (Marshak).

Morgan (2006) discussed many of the unconscious forces that guide individuals, groups, and organizational behavior in the chapter, “Organizations as Psychic Prisons.” Morgan discussed how organizations become trapped operating in terms such as “business as usual.” In these organizations, creativity and innovation are stifled or non-existent (Morgan). He refered to this as strong corporate cultures becoming pathological. Companies can fail or lose market share from being trapped in a particular way of thinking. Morgan identified that individual and organizational behaviors are influenced by unconscious schemata. He discussed influences such as childhood, gender, and anxiety in organizations as psychic prisons to illustrate how unconscious influences can affect organizations.

Morgan posited that “humans live their lives as prisoners or products of their individual and collective unconscious” (p. 212). Morgan told a story about Fredrick Taylor, the creator of “scientific management,” and his need to control everything around him (p. 212). According to Morgan, Freud would have described his personality as anal-compulsive which is formed by early childhood experiences. Taylor’s controlling nature was instrumental in understanding organizational structure and control and their limitations (Morgan).

According to Morgan (2006), gender also influences organization behavior. Male characteristics have dominated western businesses in regard to roles, traditions, philosophy, and authority. Morgan described mentors in business as “organizational members [who] cultivate fatherly roles . . . of help and protection” (p. 219).

Meta-Theory of Organizational Change

According to Marshak (1996), despite the differences in theories between the three schools, they all agree on a singular meta-theory of organizational change which incorporates the following:

  1. Organizational behavior is influenced by out-of-awareness schemata. These schemata may be underlying theories-in-use, cultural assumptions and beliefs, and/or unconscious material or archetypes.
  2. Organizational schemata may be accessed and modified. Different methods are suggested depending on whether or not the schemata are considered to be conscious, pre-conscious, or unconscious.
  3. Second-order organizational change requires modification of controlling schemata in order to create innovative behavior that is different from “automatic” or “habitual” patterns. (p. 150)

Metaphors unify the three schools in two other ways (Marshak, 1996). According to Lakoff and Johnson (1980), metaphors are schemata that structure or relate meaning. First in regard to organizational change, it is important to understand metaphor and its influence on individuals and the organization as a whole.

Second, metaphors unify by providing a better understanding of literal and symbolic meaning and of conscious and unconscious influences (Marshak, 1996). Marshak posited that metaphors provide clarity to theories-in-use, cultural beliefs, and unconscious influences and their effects. Metaphors are valuable tools for understanding individual and organizational influences, paving the way for organizational change to occur.

Organizations as Culture

Culture in organizations is an ongoing process that requires conscious attempts to create meaning to better communicate and share vision (Morgan, 2006). It is a living phenomenon in which people share meaning and gain insight. Cultural metaphors shape reality (Morgan, 1996).

Technology is making the world smaller, thus it is becoming increasingly more important to share meaning in organizations (Morgan, 1996). People in organizations may communicate face-to-face or use forms of electronic communication. They may come from different cultures and backgrounds. Metaphor provides a way of communicating shared meaning within an organization.

Metaphors explain what is most important in an organization’s culture (Morgan, 2006). Is it the customers? Is it quality? Is it the employees? Metaphors convey this message through slogans, mission statements, and vision statements. As organizations evolve, establish new goals, or innovate, they can effectively communicate this throughout the organization using metaphors to share reality. Metaphors are important to organizations because of their nature of shaping reality (Morgan).

The enactment of shared reality establishes the foundation in which we gain an understanding of the “processes that produce systems of shared meaning” (Morgan, 2006, p. 137). Morgan posited that organizations have “structure, rules, policies, goals, missions, job descriptions, and standard operating procedures” (p. 139). They serve as a reference point for individuals thereby creating “cultural artifacts [that shape] the ongoing reality” (Morgan, pp. 139-140).

The metaphor organizations as culture therefore creates a vision that leaders can use to guide organizational objectives (Morgan, 2006). It also provides a perspective so followers can gauge the leader’s performance in achieving the vision.

Organizations as Psychic Prisons

Organizations as psychic prisons helps leaders and managers understand how unconscious factors influence individuals and groups and provides insight to deal with organizational challenges (Morgan, 2006). According to Morgan, organizational theorists try to provide insight to this phenomenon and rational solutions to control their effects.

Organizations benefit from this metaphor because it helps managers recognize and understand unconscious projections that occur when innovation or change is needed in an organization (Morgan, 2006). Managers need to understand and anticipate how traumatic events such as mergers, departmental changes, and new policies are likely to produce negative effects within the organization (Morgan).

Morgan (2006) posited that organizational theorists need to focus research on how managers and leaders can be effective working with the conscious and unconscious factors that affect employees. He believed rational theories do not consider the irrational side of employees and how to manage or guide their behavior.

This metaphor provides awareness to rational and irrational behavior of individuals, groups, and even leaders in organizations. When leaders and managers better understand how to manage the unconscious factors, they are more likely to be able to effectively make cultural changes within the organization.

Conclusion

The research indicates that metaphors are imagery devices that are liberating in orientation (Grant & Oswick, 1996). They provide meaning by creating unconscious emotional responses to experiences that influence our values and beliefs (Charteris-Black, 2005). They shape our reality and provide innovate ways of seeing things (Morgan, 2006). Metaphors help organizations by creating and describing shared reality. They also provide opportunities for organizational theorists to assist managers and agents of change by identifying and effectively managing unconscious factors that affect organizations (Morgan).

The caution with metaphors is they cannot be taken too literally or their value is lost (Trim, 2007). Metaphors shape and are shaped by individual reality. Due to this, they are not objective since they rely on the interpretation of the individual (Morgan, 1996). Morgan (2006) illustrated the power of metaphors is their ability to frame complex thinking and challenge innovative reasoning.

According to Morgan (2006), there has been extensive research regarding the metaphor organizations as culture from a cross-national perspective. Technology is bridging communication gaps between individuals in organizations. Future research should consider the relationship between organization and culture from a cross-cultural perspective. Future research could explore the effects of technology on the life and death of metaphors. Questions need to be asked about the effects of technology on the life and death of metaphors. Does technology create universal metaphors? Does technology accelerate the effects caused by the difference in culture and language regarding the life and death of metaphors? Will technology be able to create a shared reality in multinational organizations and companies with foreign business relationships?

About the Author

Lisa Renz is the executive director of BNI Southeastern Virginia. She earned a B.A. and an

M.B.A. from St. Leo University. Lisa is working toward a Ph.D. in Organizational Leadership at Regent University’s School of Global Leadership & Entrepreneurship with an emphasis in entrepreneurial leadership.

Email: lisaren@regent.edu

About Regent

Founded in 1977, Regent University is America’s premier Christian university with more than 11,000 students studying on its 70-acre campus in Virginia Beach, Virginia, and online around the world. The university offers associate, bachelor’s, master’s, and doctoral degrees in more than 150 areas of study including business, communication and the arts, counseling, cybersecurity, divinity, education, government, law, leadership, nursing, healthcare, and psychology. Regent University is ranked the #1 Best Accredited Online College in the United States (Study.com, 2020), the #1 Safest College Campus in Virginia (YourLocalSecurity, 2021), and the #1 Best Online Bachelor’s Program in Virginia for 13 years in a row (U.S. News & World Report, 2025).

About the School of Business & Leadership

The School of Business & Leadership is a Gold Winner – Best Business School and Best MBA Program by Coastal Virginia Magazine. The school also has earned a top-five ranking by U.S. News & World Report for its online MBA and online graduate business (non-MBA) programs. The school offers both online and on-campus degrees including Master of Business Administration, M.S. in Accounting (Tax or Financial Reporting & Assurance), M.S. in Business Analytics, M.A. in Organizational Leadership, Ph.D. in Organizational Leadership, and Doctor of Strategic Leadership.

References

Charteris-Black, J. (2005). Politicians and rhetoric. Houndsmill, UK: Palgrave MacMillan. Grant, D., & Oswick, C. (1996). Metaphor and organizations. London: Sage.

Lakoff, G., & Johnson, M. (1980). Metaphors we live by. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. Marshak, R. (1996). Metaphors in organizational settings: Impact and outcome. In D. Grant & C.

Oswick (Eds.), Metaphor and organizations (pp. 147-165). London: Sage.

Morgan, G. (1996). An afterword: Is there anything more to be said about metaphor? In D. Grant & C. Oswick (Eds.), Metaphor and organizations (pp. 227-240). London: Sage.

Morgan, G. (2006). Images of organizations. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.

Trim, R. (2007). Metaphor networks: The comparative evolution of figurative language. UK: Palgrave MacMillan.

Yukl, G. (2006). Leadership in organizations. Upper Saddle River, New Jersey: Pearson Prentice Hall.

Female Roles in Leadership and the Ideological Texture of 1 Timothy 2: 9-15

There is perhaps no more hotly debated issue in the Christian community today than the issue of women serving in positions of leadership. Though a number of scriptures speak to the roles of women, for the purpose of this analysis, 1 Timothy 2: 9-15 is examined. Using the concept of socio-rhetorical criticism (Robbins 1996), this paper explores the ideological texture of 1 Timothy 2: 9-15 in regard to female leadership roles. An overview of ideological texture, as well as an overview of 1 Timothy 2: 9-15 is presented. In addition to an ideological analysis of 1 Timothy 2: 9-15, implications for contemporary female leadership are discussed.

An Overview of Ideological Texture

Socio-rhetorical criticism approaches literature from the perspective of values and beliefs both in the text and within the word in which we live (Robbins 1996). Specifically, ideological texture, a subset of socio- rhetorical criticism, examines the bias, opinions, and preferences of the writer, along with specific interpretations (Green n.d.). Ideological texture relates to a society’s culture by assessing behavioral, physical, and value artifacts within a culture (West 2008). Specifically, the term ideology, refers to a person’s moral beliefs regarding social order. This can be based on values such as, prejudices, stereotypes, as well as beliefs based on experiences regarding how people should act (Robbins 1996). Additionally, rhetorical texts seek to persuade the readers and it is the reader’s responses to answer the “what” questions within the text, that shape how they respond to that text (deSilva 2002). Evaluating scripture using ideological rhetoric, is when world view and narrative technique, “meet in holy alliance” (Sternberg 1987, 89). This manuscript attempts to provide scriptural insight into the contentious issue of female leadership, by ideologically analyzing 1 Timothy 2: 9-15.

An Overview of 1 Timothy 2: 9-15

Timothy 2: 9-15 is a portion of the Apostle Paul’s letter to Timothy. Paul’s purpose in writing Timothy was to encourage Timothy to confront the false teachers who had infiltrated the church at Ephesus (Schatz 2006). In context, Paul is dealing with false deceived teachers who are teaching false doctrine (1 Tim. 1:3, 7). Prior to 1 Timothy 2: 9-15, Paul gives instructions to Timothy regarding how the men and women who claim godliness should conduct themselves in the church while they are in the midst of the false teachers (1 Tim. 2:1- 10).

According to some, the women in the congregation who lay claim to godliness (1 Tim. 2:10) needed to handle the false teacher situation with prayer (1 Tim. 2:9) and continue to produce good works (1 Tim. 2:10) (Schatz 2006). They were not to expect that it is their appearance with elaborate dressing that will show forth the godly example, but their godly works (1 Tim. 2:8-10). In verses 9-15, Paul describes what is proper conduct for Christian women, including modeling the ideal of submissiveness and silence (deSilva 2002). The Word of God proclaims, “A woman should learn in quietness and full submission. I do not permit a woman to teach or to have authority over a man; she must be silent” (1 Timothy 2:11-12). Paul describes how in the church, God assigns different roles to men and women as a result of the way mankind was created and the way in which sin entered the world (1 Timothy 2:13-14). Paul restricts women from serving in roles of teaching and/or having spiritual authority over men, which precludes women from serving as pastors (Moo 1991).

The Ideological Texture of 1 Timothy 2: 9-15

The contentious nature of this topic makes it very important not to see this issue as men versus women. There are men who believe women can serve as leaders, just as there are women who believe women should not serve as leaders. This is not an issue of chauvinism or discrimination, but rather of biblical interpretation (Clouse, B. and Clouse, R. 1989). Few people would deny the hermeneutical problem presented by scripture related to the role of women in the Christian community. The marginality of women in the Christian religious traditions means that early literary sources on their roles are minimal and generally recorded by males’ thus reflecting bias (Ruether and McLaughlin 1979). While there were female leaders in the Old Testament, Jesus chose twelve men to be his disciples and most of the leaders specifically named in the New Testament are men (Howe 1974). The controversy hinges primarily on two New Testament passages; 1 Corinthians 14:33-25, and 1 Timothy 2: 9-15 (Leitch, C. and Leitch, H. 2010), but this manuscript focuses on the latter.

It cannot be denied that Paul was influenced by the culture in which he lived and accepted the subordination of women as a divinely ordained characteristic of life in the world (Longstaff 1974). However, reading 1 Timothy 2: 9-15 within its literary context indicates that Paul is not actually addressing women simply because they are women (Heidebrecht 2004). Biblical-era society was very much male-dominated. The status of women was totally subservient to the male head-of-household. It would have been considered scandalous and an affront to the sanctity of worship for a woman to take a leadership role (Leitch, C. and Leitch, H. 2010). Not only were women prohibited from taking any role that would appear to be dominant over men, they were urged to dress modestly (1 Timothy 2:9-10). At the time, Paul and other church leaders were concerned about any appearance of scandal that would make a bad impression on people they wanted to convert to Christianity. Much of Paul’s writing, beyond 1 Timothy, is concerned with instructing Christians of proper behavior and correcting problems within the church (Leitch, C. and Leitch, H. 2010).

1 Tim. 2:11-12 says: “A woman should learn in quietness and full submission. I do not permit a woman to teach or to have authority over a man; she must be silent.” The text calls twice for women to be quiet and it does not allow any form of teaching. However, Paul did not believe that a woman must be silent at all times. He says in 1 Corinthians 11 that women can pray and prophesy in a worship service. It is possible, if taken from an egalitarian standpoint, that Paul was implementing a temporary restriction based on the circumstances in his church at the time (Tkach 2006). In addition, Tkach (2006) posits that females can sometimes have authority over males. Paul was dealing with teaching in the church setting; he was not addressing civil government, business, public schools, or evangelism. Paul did not allow women to do something that was permissible for men, but is not clear whether he prohibited teaching and authority, or teaching with authority (Tkach 2006).

In verses 13-15, Paul gives his reason for the rules in verse 12, referring back to creation in Genesis. Verse 13 begins with “for” and gives the “cause” of Paul’s statement in verses 11-12 (Clouse, B. and Clouse, R. 1989). It is interesting to note that God gave the commission to be fruitful and multiple, having dominion over all other earthy creatures, to both Adam and Eve. There is no hint that there was anything but equal authority between man and woman as they existed in a sinless state. This all changed when Eve ate the forbidden fruit and enticed Adam with her; for which one of the consequences for women was the loss of equality with men (Miller 2005). Verse 15 says that “women will be saved through childbearing.” This is perhaps the most difficult verse within this set of scriptures to interpret and many scholars believe that crucial information is left out that would inform readers of the meaning behind this verse (Tkach 2006).

Scholars have debated over these verses and whether or not they are a universal principle. Some of Paul’s advice seems specific to Timothy’s situation, appearing to be without specific application required today; however, Paul’s use of Genesis to support verse 12 leads many to believe that the orders in verse 12 are a universal principle (Tkach 2006). Feminist interpretations object this notion saying that Paul only restricted the women of Ephesus from teaching due to their unruly behavior (Clouse, B. and Clouse, R. 1989). An additional objection is that Paul is only referring to husbands and wives, and not to men and women in general. The Greek words in the passage could refer to husbands and wives; however, the basic meaning of the words refers to men and women. Verses 8-10 clearly refer to all men and women, not only husbands and wives (Clouse, B. and Clouse, R. 1989). Reading 1 Timothy 2:9-15 within its literary context reveals that Paul’s instructions for women are integrated with his larger purpose for writing Timothy and dealing with the false teaching going on within the church. “Paul’s overarching concern that women reflect godliness through good works acts as a counterbalance to the deceptive temptation and destructive effects of the different teaching. Paul’s response is consistent with both his instructions for the entire church and his concern for Timothy” (McCloskey 2004, 6).

As readers of Paul’s letter to Timothy there are inferences that must be made that could potentially cloud the exegetical process. The reader hears only one side of the conversation; the letter from the author, to address mutually understood issues from a shared situational context (Heidebrecht 2004). It is important to note that readers are unable to dislocate themselves from their own context and unconscious presuppositions, thus creating meaning out of the little information provided within these verses (Heidebrecht 2004). The question in this passage is not just one of exegesis, but also one of hermeneutics. It is not enough to simply attempt to understand why Paul wrote this passage; the challenge must be faced of drawing conclusions as to how Paul’s words should be applied today (Tkach 2006).

What Does It Mean For Contemporary Women?

If the church is to perpetuate the distinction of role between male and female within its structure, it must examine to what extent the distinction of roles between males and females will be portrayed (Howe 1974). Galatians 3:28 indicates that God does not view sexual distinction as ultimate and that men and women are to be counted as equals on a spiritual level (Howe 1974). Scholars on both sides of this controversy agree that 1 Timothy 2:12 puts certain restrictions on women. Paul did not allow women to teach or to have authority over men in the functioning of the church. The question is whether these restrictions were based on the situation in Ephesus, the culture in the Greco-Roman-Jewish world, or a principle rooted in the way that God wants men and women to interact with one another in worship (Tkach 2006).

An investigation into the nature of leadership roles reveals that the New Testament clearly indicates that leadership roles are assigned by God as a spiritual gift. “God bestows capabilities and positions upon individuals for his own purposes, these subjects told me, and when he looks for a human vessel, he “sees” only the willingness of the soul to serve.” (Kwilecki 1987, 66). Paul’s letter to Timothy does not appear to address all women who were in ministry, but rather those in the congregation who were out of order. This is evidenced in the fact that many women, such as Pheobe (Romans 16:1-2), Priscilla (Acts 18:26), and Euodia and Syntyche (Philippians 4:2-3) played influential leadership roles in the early church. Numerous others served as prophetesses, evangelists, leaders, and judges (Miller 2005). Not only does scripture present numerous female leaders, but many of these leaders functioned in ways quite contrary to Paul’s prohibition in 1 Timothy 2 (McCloskey 2004). Additionally, scripture presents these female leaders, some of whom led and taught men, in positive ways, with Paul seeming to endorse their behavior (McCloskey 2004). Witherington’s (1990) explanation for this is that none of the female leaders featured in scripture engage in behaviors, specifically authoritative instruction, that Paul prohibits. More importantly, Jesus regarded women as fit for delivering news about himself to other men. For instance, John 4 describes the Samaritan women as an evangelist to an entire community. Additionally, Jesus entrusts the news of His resurrection to women before any men (Grenz 1995). More specifically, women are listed as prophets in Acts 1:8-9 and 1 Cor. 11:5, and prophets clearly had authority to both teach and preach (Spencer 1985).

There are two views on this set of scripture in regards to applicability to contemporary society. There are those who look at the twelve male apostles, and see an absolute prohibition of a leadership role for women (Leitch, C. and Leitch, H. 2010). They believe that scripture about female subservience to men should be taken at face value. Then, there are those who view the New Testament prohibitions as practical advice to avoid scandal. This issue has often been compared to that of slavery. New Testament authors passively accepted slavery; however, very few people would argue today that we should return to a society that condones slavery. Although New Testament writers passively accepted the oppression of women, it does not imply that leadership roles for women are wrong in today’s society (Leitch, C. and Leitch, H. 2010). Women took as large of a role in early church leadership as was allowed by the conventions of that society, so women today should be able to serve in whatever leadership positions they are qualified for (Leitch, C. and Leitch, H. 2010).

The overall conclusion is that Paul was not offering a universal prohibition in 1 Timothy 2, disallowing women from leadership positions in every context, but rather Paul was addressing the current Ephesian situation involving false teaching by women (McCloskey 2004). It is time for the church to reevaluate biblical teaching concerning the role of women in leadership and be consistent in the application of the conclusions drawn.

About Regent

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About the School of Business & Leadership

The School of Business & Leadership is a Gold Winner – Best Business School and Best MBA Program by Coastal Virginia Magazine. The school also has earned a top-five ranking by U.S. News & World Report for its online MBA and online graduate business (non-MBA) programs. The school offers both online and on-campus degrees including Master of Business Administration, M.S. in Accounting (Tax or Financial Reporting & Assurance), M.S. in Business Analytics, M.A. in Organizational Leadership, Ph.D. in Organizational Leadership, and Doctor of Strategic Leadership.

Bibliography

Clouse, Bonnidell, and Robert G. Clouse. Women in ministry: Four views. Downers Grove: Inter-varsity Press, 1989.

deSilva, David A. An introduction to the New Testament: Contexts, methods, and ministry formation.. Downers Grove: Inter-varsity Press, 2004.

Green, Daryl D. “The Apostle John’s spiritual foresight: Interpretation through the exegesis of Revelation. .” Bible Theology. http://www.biblicaltheology.com/Research/GreenD04.pdf (2 June 2010).

Grenz, Stanley J. Women in the church. Downers Grove: Inter-varsity Press, 1995.

Heidebrecht, Doug. “Reading 1 Timothy 2: 9-15 in its literary context.” Direction 33, no. 2 (2004): 171-184. Howe, Margaret E. “Women and church leadership.” Evangelical Quarterly 51 (1974): 97-104.

Kwilecki, Susan. “Contemporary Pentecostal clergywomen: Female Christian leadership, old style.” Journal of Feminist Studies in Religion 3, no. 2 (1987): 57-75.

Leitch, Cliff, and Helen Leitch. “Christian Bible reference: What does the Bible say about women in ministry?.” http://www.christianbiblereference.org/faq_women.htm (2 June 2010).

Longstaff, Thomas. “The ordination of women: A Biblical perspective. .” Value and Politics: A Theological Hinge.

McCloskey, Matt H. “Female eldership: The contemporary debate over 1 Timothy 2:8-15 and what it means for one local church.” http://www.rooftop.org/resources/seminars/leadership.pdf (2 June 2010).

Miller, Betty. “What does the Bible say about women in ministry?.” http://bible.com/bibleanswers_result.php?id=141 (2 June 2010).

Moo, Douglas. “What does it mean not to teach or have authority over men? 1 Timothy 2: 11-15.” In Recovering biblical manhood and womanhood: A response to evangelical feminism, John Piper and Wayne Grudem, 179-193. Wheaton: Crossway Books, 1991.

Robbins, Vernon K. The tapestry of early Christian discourse: Rhetoric, society, and ideology. New York: Routledge, 1996.

Ruether, Rosemary, and Eleanor McLaughlin. Women of spirit: Female leadership in the Jewish and Christian traditions. New York: Simon & Schuster, Inc., 1979.

Schatz, Cheryl. “What does 1 Timothy 2: 11-15 mean?.” http://strivetoenter.com/wim/2006/12/02/what-does-1-timothy-211-15-mean/ (2 June 2010).

Spencer, Aida B. Beyond the curse: Women called to ministry. Peabody: Hendrickson, 1985.

Sternberg, Meir. The poetics of biblical narrative: Ideological literature and the drama of reading. Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1987. Tkach, Joseph. “Questions about 1 Timothy 2: 11-15.” http://www.wcg.org/lit/church/ministry/women/Women10.pdf (2 June 2010).

West, Bud. “Implications for leadership in the evaluation of scripture: An ideological review of Matthew 8:5-13.” Biblical Perspectives on Leadership (2008)

Witherington, Ben. Women and the Genesis of Christianity. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1990.

Assessing the Effectiveness of Authentic Leadership

The effectiveness of authentic leadership (AL) has been empirically evaluated in this paper. It has been found that authentic leadership has been understood as a three dimensional, second order construct by Indian respondents. The study indicates that AL, as measured by the 16 items of the Authentic Leadership Questionnaire (ALQ), leads to seven different dimensions of effective management and five different dimensions of effective leadership as measured by 42 variables. The paper concludes that AL leads to effective management and leadership performance.

Leadership is the process of influencing a group of individuals to achieve shared objectives (Northouse, 2013; Yukl, 2011). The primary function of leadership is to produce change and movement, while the primary function of management is to provide order and consistency to organisations (Northouse, 2013). As both leadership and management are processes, anybody can execute leadership or managerial functions at different times. Leaders cannot be called as leaders simply by virtue of the position they hold in organizations (Kellerman, 2012). The execution of management and leadership functions by leaders situated in organizations has been examined in this paper.

Driven by concerns of ethical conduct of today’s leaders, several authors have studied one form of ethical leadership, called authentic leadership (AL) (Gardner et al., 2011) with diverse results. In their study, Clapp-Smith, Vogelgesang & Avey (2009) found that AL leads to trust in management and positively affects group performance measured by unit sales growth.

Hassan & Ahmed (2011) found that AL promotes subordinates’ trust in the leader and contributed to work engagement. Jensen & Luthans (2006) found that employee’s perception of leaders’ authentic behaviour served as the strongest single predictor of employee job satisfaction, organizational commitment and work happiness. Laschinger, Wong & Grau (2012) found that AL has negative direct effect on workplace bullying and emotional exhaustion and a positive effect on job satisfaction. Peterson et al. (2012) find that authentic leadership behaviour exhibited by leaders is positively related to follower job performance. Peus et al. (2012) found that followers’ satisfaction with supervisor, organisational commitment and extra effort, and perceived team effectiveness were outcomes of AL. Hmieleski, Cole, & Baron (2012) found that shared AL has a positive indirect effect on firm performance. Leroy, Palanski & Simons (2012) found that AL is related to follower affective commitment and work role performance. Rego et al. (2012b) find that AL predicts employees’ creativity. Rego et al. (2012c) found that AL predicts team affective commitment and team potency. Walumbwa et al. (2008) found a positive relationship between AL and supervisor-rated performance. Walumbwa et al. (2010) found that AL was positively related to supervisor rated organizational citizenship behaviour and work engagement. Woolley, Casa, & Levy (2011) reported a positive relationship between AL and followers’ psychological capital, partially mediated by positive work climate and a significant moderating effect from gender. Walumbwa et al. (2011) found AL to positively affect desired group outcomes like group level performance and citizenship behaviour.

According to Gardner et al. (2011), limited amount of empirical research makes it difficult to assess the validity of assertions regarding the positive effects of AL that are commonly advanced by its proponents. Gardner et al. (2011) further state that having recognised the documented relationships between authenticity, engagement and well being (Deci & Ryan, 1995; Kernis, 2003, Kernis & Goldman, 2006), five recent studies (Gardner et al., 2009; Giallonardo, Wong, & Iwasiw, 2010; Macik-Frey, Quick, & Cooper, 2009; Walumbwa et al., 2010; Wong & Cummins, 2009) have explored the relationship between AL and leader/follower engagement, empowerment and well being. Gardner et al. (2009) have encouraged research on the positive effects of AL on these and related outcomes (e.g., job satisfaction, organizational commitment, and employee and organizational performance). This study has been undertaken to find whether AL can lead to effective management and leadership performance in the Indian context.

Authentic Leadership

According to Harter (2002), authenticity can be defined as “owning one’s personal experiences, be they thoughts, emotions, needs, preferences, or beliefs, processes captured by the injunction to know oneself” and behaving in accordance with the true self. Based on the initial definition of AL by Luthans and Avolio (2003), and the underlying dimension of the construct posited by Gardner et al. (2005) and Illies, Morgenson, & Nahrgang (2005), Walumbwa et al. (2008) have defined AL as a pattern of leader behaviour that draws upon and promotes both positive psychological capacities and a positive ethical climate, to foster greater self-awareness, an internalized moral perspective, balanced processing of information, and relational transparency on the part of leaders working with followers, fostering positive self-development. In this definition, self awareness refers to demonstrating an understanding of how one derives and makes meaning of the world and how that meaning making process impacts the way one views himself or herself over time. It also refers to showing an understanding of one’s strengths and weaknesses and the multifaceted nature of the self, which includes gaining insight into the self through exposure to others, and being cognisant of one’s impact on other people (Kernis 2003). Relational transparency refers to presenting one’s authentic self (as opposed to a fake or distorted self) to others. Such behaviour promotes trust through disclosures that involve openly sharing information and expressions of one’s true thoughts and feelings while trying to minimize displays of inappropriate emotions (Kernis, 2003). Balanced processing refers to leaders who show that they objectively analyze all relevant data before coming to a decision. Such leaders also solicit views that challenge their deeply held positions (Gardner et al., 2005). Internalized moral perspective refers to an internalized and integrated form of self-regulation (Ryan & Deci, 2003). This sort of self-regulation is guided by internal moral standards and values versus group, organizational, and societal pressures, and it results in expressed decision making and behaviour that is consistent with these internalized values (Avolio & Gardner, 2005; Gardner et al., 2005; Walumbwa et al., 2008).

Measurement of AL

Based on the above conception of AL, a 16-item Authentic Leadership Questionnaire (ALQ) by Avolio, Gardner, & Walumbwa (2007) is available from www.mindgarden.com. The ALQ consist of four components: Relational Transparency (5 items), Internalized Moral Perspective (4 items), Balanced Processing (3 items) and Self Awareness (4 items). The ALQ, operationalized and validated by Walumbwa, et al. (2008)and derived from Kernis and Goldman’s (2006) multi-component conception of authenticity, was found to be the most frequently used measure of AL by Gardner et al. (2011) in their review of AL literature from 1980 till 2010. Neider & Schriesheim (2011) developed an 8-item Authentic Leadership Inventory (ALI) and inferred that it is devoid of some concerns with the ALQ, while urging future researchers to test the ALI further. However, the ALQ has been used by many other researchers as a measure of AL after 2010 including Hassan & Ahmed (2011); Peterson et al. (2012); Walumbwa et al. (2011); Wooley, Caza & Levy (2011); Hmieleski, Cole & Baron (2012); Laschinger, Wong & Grau (2012); Leroy, Palanski & Simons (2012); Peus et al. (2012); Rego et al. (2012 a, b & c). The ALQ has been used in this study to measure AL after testing the psychometric properties of the scale (whose construct validity requires further assessment according to Gardner et al., 2011).

Although Walumbwa et al., (2008) have confirmed a 4-factor second order structure of the ALQ, Neider & Schriesheim (2011) have raised some concerns with the same. While the ALQ has been used and tested in USA, China, Kenya (Walumbwa, Avolio, Gardner, et al., 2008), Portugal (Rego et al., 2012 a & b), Belgium (Leroy, Palanski, & Simons, 2012), Canada (Laschinger, Wong, & Grau, 2012), New Zealand (Caza, Bagozzi, & Caza, 2010) and Germany (Peus et al., 2012), the survey of literature revealed that no study involving the ALQ has been carried out in India so far.

Managerial Effectiveness

According to Yukl (2011), conceptions of leader effectiveness differ from one writer to another like the definitions of leadership. The criteria selected to evaluate leadership effectiveness reflect a researcher’s explicit or implicit conception of leadership. Most researchers evaluate leadership effectiveness in terms of the consequences of influence on a single individual, a team or group, or an organisation.

According to Yukl (2011), the most commonly used measure of leader effectiveness is the extent to which the performance of the team or organizational unit is enhanced and the attainment of goals is facilitated. Examples of objective measures of performance include sales, net profits, profit margin, market share, return on investment, return on assets, productivity, cost per unit of output, costs in relation to budgeted expenditures, and change in the value of corporate stock. Subjective measures of effectiveness include ratings obtained from leader’s superiors, peers and subordinates. As mentioned earlier, the primary function of leadership would be to produce change and movement, while the primary function of management would to provide order and consistency to organisations (Northouse, 2013). Accordingly, the above would be measures of managerial effectiveness rather than leadership effectiveness.

Followers’ attitude and behaviour provide an indirect indicator of dissatisfaction and hostility toward the manager. Examples of such indicators include absenteeism, voluntary vacancies, grievances, complaints to higher management, requests for transfer, work slowdowns, and deliberate sabotage of equipment and facilities.

A final type of criterion for managerial effectiveness is the extent to which a person has a successful career as a manager. Is the person promoted rapidly to positions of higher authority? Does the person serve a full term in a managerial position, or is he or she removed or forced to resign? For elected positions in organizations, is a manager who seeks re-election successful?

Leadership Effectiveness

Follower attitudes and perceptions of the leader are common indicator of leader effectiveness (Yukl, 2011). How well does the leader satisfy their needs and expectations? Do followers like, respect, and admire the leader? Do followers trust the leader and perceive him or her to have high integrity? Are followers strongly committed to carrying out the leader’s requests, or will they resist, ignore and subvert them? Does the leader improve the quality of work life, build the self-confidence of followers, increase their skills, and contribute to their psychological growth and development?

Leader effectiveness is occasionally measured in terms of the leader’s contribution to the quality of group processes, as perceived by followers or by outside observers. Does the leader enhance group cohesiveness, member cooperation, member commitment, and member confidence that the group can achieve its objectives? Does the leader enhance problem solving and decision making by the group, and help to resolve disagreements and conflicts in a constructive way? Does the leader contribute to the efficiency of role specialization, the organization of activities, the accumulation of resources, and the readiness of the group to deal with change and crises?

Measurement of Managerial and Leadership Effectiveness

In this study 42 items were used to measure 7 dimensions of managerial effectiveness including A. Organisational performance, B. Satisfaction of followers’ needs and expectations, C. Improvement of the quality of work life and development of the followers, D. Manager’s contribution to absenteeism of followers, E. Manager’s contribution to dissatisfaction and hostility of the followers, F. Manager’s contribution to quality of group processes of his/her unit or organisation, and G. The extent to which the manager had a successful career, and 5 dimensions of leadership effectiveness including H. Respect for the leader, I. Commitment to carry our leader’s requests, J. Leader’s contribution to enhancement of problem solving, decision making and conflict resolution skills of his/her unit, K. Leader’s contribution to group ability to deal with change, and, L. Leader’s contribution to group ability to deal with crises. The detailed questionnaire for measuring managerial and leadership effectiveness is given in the Appendix.

Method

In this study, 324 working executives, mainly from Eastern India, were requested to fill in the ALQ along with 42 questions related to 12 dimensions of managerial and leadership effectiveness of the person whom they considered as their leader in their organisations.

Respondents were required to rate each item on a Likert scale anchored at Not at all = 0, Once in a while = 1, Sometimes = 2, Fairly often = 3 and Frequently, if not always = 4. A total of 280 valid responses were used for empirical analysis after eliminating obvious cases of ‘ya saying’ and removing outliers with the help of SPSS 16 boxplots.

Results

Sixteen items of the ALQ were subjected to Principal Axis Factoring suitable for exploring the underlying factors (Hair et al. 2006) and also subjected to rotation by direct oblimin method with Kaiser normalisation using SPSS 16. The pattern matrix is laid out as Table 1.

Table 1: Rotated Factor Solution – Pattern Matrix

 Factor
Variable1234
1. says_means0.529   
2. admits_mistakes0.581   
3. speak_mind0.575   
4. tell_truth0.439   
5. emotions_feelings0.399   
6. beliefs_actions0.741   
7. decisions_values0.476   
8. positions_values0.325   
9. ethical_decisions   -0.874
10. challenge_position   -0.466
11. analyses_data  -0.469 
12. listens_viewpoints  -0.659 
13. feedback_improve 0.405-0.462 
14. others_capabilities 0.668  
15. reevaluate_positions 0.499  
16. actions_impact 0.353  

It was evident from the pattern matrix that the first 5 variables supposed to measure the Relational Transparency construct got merged with the first 3 variables that are supposed to measure the Internalised Moral Perspective construct. It was concluded that respondents could not differentiate the above two constructs as separate ones. The merged factors were renamed as Transparent and Moral Perspective (TMP). The ALQ was then subjected to confirmatory factor analysis using AMOS 18. Although variable no. 9 and variable no. 10 loaded on a fourth factor, variable no. 9 was clubbed with TMP and variable no. 10 was clubbed with the Balanced Processing (BP) construct as per the loading of the original ALQ. Similarly, although variable no. 13 cross loaded on 2 factors, it was clubbed with BP as per the original ALQ. Following Walumbwa et al. (2008) the second order conceptual model was tested with the first 9 variables loading onto the first factor, i.e. Transparent and Moral Perspective (TMP), the next three variables loading onto the second factor i.e. Balanced Processing (BP) and the remaining four variables loading onto the third factor i.e. Self Awareness (SA). The result of the confirmatory factor analysis of the second order 3-factor model using Maximum Likelihood method indicated reasonable fit of the data with the conceptual model with CMIN/DF = 2.183, CFI = .889 and RMSEA = .065, laid out as Table 2. Acceptable model fit values are CMIN/DF <= 2 (Byrne, 1989), CFI close to 1 (Bentler, 1990) and RMSEA <= .05 (Browne and Cudeck, 1993). In contrast, the second order, 4-factor model of the original ALQ indicated worse fit with CMIN/DF = 2.256, CFI = .883 and RMSEA = .067. The difference between the chi square values of the three and four factor models was 5.146 and the difference in degrees of freedom was 1, thereby indicating that the difference between the 3-factor and 4-factor models was significant at P = .05. The results confirmed the construct validity of the three dimensions of the ALQ scale in the Indian context. The Cronbach’s Alpha values for the three dimensions ranged from .634 to .807. According to Hair et al. (2006), reliability between .6 and .7 may be acceptable provided that other indicators of a model’s construct validity are good. Since the standardised regression weights of the three dimensions of the ALQ were high and significant and these have been reported to be internally consistent by Walumbwa et al. (2008), all the items making up the 3 dimensions were retained for further analysis.

Table 2: Confirmatory factor analysis of the ALQ

PathSRWPathSRW
AL -> Transparent and Moral Perspective (TMP).839TMP -> says_means.610
Cronbach’s Alpha = .807 TMP -> admits_mistakes.588
  TMP -> speak_mind.592
  TMP -> tells_truth.589
  TMP -> emotions_feelings.316
  TMP -> beliefs_actions.590
  TMP -> decisions_values.572
  TMP -> positions_values.595
  TMP -> ethical_decisions.629
AL -> Balanced Processing (BP).959BP -> challenge_position.491
Cronbach’s Alpha = .653 BP -> analyses_data.711
  BP -> listens_viewpoints.727
AL -> Self Awareness (SA).777SA -> feedback_improve.630
Cronbach’s Alpha = .634 SA -> others_capabilities.503
  SA -> reevaluate_positions.469
  SA -> actions_impact.550
SRW = Standardized Regression Weights, P = .001.

managerial effectiveness and the three-factor, second order ALQ. Similarly, four structural equation models (H through L) were tested for relationship between leadership effectiveness and the ALQ. The model fit measures and the standardized regression weights of the paths are laid out as Tables 3 and 4. All the models indicated reasonable fit with the data as indicated by the CMIN/DF, CFI and RMSEA values. The results indicated the construct validity of the 12 dimensions of effective management and leadership performance tested in this study. The Cronbach’s Alpha values of the 12 dimensions of effective management and leadership ranged from .641 to .895. These were within the acceptable range as suggested by Hair et al. (2006) and were indicative of the internal consistency of the 12 latent constructs.

Table 3: Fit of 8 structural equation models indicating relationship between AL and managerial effectiveness

ModelCMIN/DFCFIRMSEAPathSRWPathSRW
A.1.928.904.058AL -> Organizational Performance (OP) Cronbach’s Alpha = .864.565OP -> Sales OP -> Profit OP -> Market Share OP -> ROI OP -> Stock Value.793 .846 .813 .547 .487
B.2.007.905.060AL -> Satisfaction of Follower Needs (SFN) Cronbach’s Alpha = .807.738SFN -> Follower Needs SFN -> Follower Expectations.815 .861
C.1.965.916.059AL -> Improved Quality of Work Life (IQWL) Cronbach’s Alpha = .859.773IQWL -> Improved QWL IQWL -> Builds Self-Confidence IQWL -> Enhances Skills IQWL -> Helps Psychological Growth.779 .890 .766 .690
D2.039.902.061AL -> Contribution to Absenteeism (CA) Cronbach’s Alpha = .895-.666CA -> Absenteeism of Self CA -> Absenteeism of Others.878 .924
E.2.171.897.065AL -> Contribution to Follower Dissatisfaction & Hostility (CFDH) Cronbach’s Alpha = .889-.445CFDH -> Complained against the Manager CFDH -> Requested Transfer CFDH -> Slowed Work CFDH -> Sabotaged.797 .833 .811 .803
F.2.060.887.062AL -> Contribution to Quality of Group Attitudes and Behavior (CQGAB) Cronbach’s Alpha = .811.647
CQGAB -> Increased Cohesiveness CQGAB -> Increased Cooperation CQGAB -> Increased Commitment CQGAB -> Increased Confidence.544 .713 .861 .727
G.1.993.884.060AL -> Successful Career of Manager (SCM) Cronbach’s Alpha = .641.679SCM -> Successful Career SCM -> Promoted Higher SCM -> Reelected.721 .640 .439
SRW = Standardized Regression Weights, P = .001.

Table 4: Fit of 4 structural equation models indicating relationship between AL and leadership effectiveness

ModelCMIN/DFCFIRMSEAPathSRWPathSRW
H.2.096.914.063AL -> Respect for
the Leader (RM)
Cronbach’s Alpha =
.826		.841RM -> Like
Leader
RM -> Respect
Leader
RM -> Admire
Leader
RM -> Trust
Leader
RM -> Leader
Integrity		.796
.837
.857
.857
.725
I.1.967.896.059AL -> Uncommitted
to Leader’s Requests
(ULR)
Cronbach’s Alpha =
.741		-.156*ULR -> Resist
requests
ULR -> Ignore
requests
ULR -> Subvert
requests		.390
.866
.853
J.2.001.890.060AL -> Problem
Solving Skill
Enhancement
(PSSE)
Cronbach’s Alpha = .726		.512PSSE -> Problem
Solving Skills
PSSE -> Decision
Making skills
PSSE -> Resolving Disagreements		.734
.844
.538
K.1.867.905.56AL -> Helps Deal
with Change
(HDCH) Cronbach’s
Alpha = .820		.583HDCH ->
Enhancing Role
Specialization
HDCH ->
Enhancing
Organization of
Activities
HDCH ->
Accumulation of
Resources
HDCH -> Group
Readiness		.677
.789
.719
.739
L.1.935.903.058AL -> Helps Deal
with Crises (HDC)
Cronbach’s Alpha =
.832		.636HDC -> Enhancing
Role
Specialization
HDC -> Enhancing
Organization of
Activities
HDC ->
Accumulation of
Resources
HDC -> Group
Readiness		.735
.789
.806
.689
SRW = Standardized Regression Weights, P = .001. *P = .047

Conclusion

The results indicate that AL leads to various dimensions of managerial effectiveness including organisational performance, satisfaction of follower needs, and improvement in the quality of work life. AL leads to decrease in negative attitudes and behaviour of followers like absenteeism, dissatisfaction and hostility. AL leads to enhancement in positive group attitudes and behaviour. Finally, managers practising AL achieve personal success as perceived by their followers.

AL leads to various dimensions of leadership effectiveness including respect for the leader, commitment to leader’s requests, enhancement of problem solving skills and group ability to deal with change and crises.

Discussion

This study indicates that AL is a three-factor second order construct according to Indian respondents. The Relational Transparency and Internalized Moral Perspective factors of the original ALQ get merged into a new factor which may be called Transparent and Moral Perspective. The results of the study indicate that AL improves both managerial and leadership performance.

An important limitation of this paper is that the study might be suffering from common method bias as data has been collected from a single source of respondents. Common method bias includes factors such as item ambiguity, the measurement context, transient mood states, social desirability, consistency motif, implicit theories, demand effects, scale anchors and formats, leniency bias and demand characteristics (Williams, Hartman, & Cavazotte, 2010). Future research studies should consider collecting data about followers from the leader and vice versa as one of the ex ante measures of avoiding common method bias (Chang, van Witteloostuijn, & Eden, 2010). Alternatively, ex post methods (Williams, Hartman, & Cavazotte, 2010) may be used as remedy for common method bias.

It might appear that, it has been assumed that a person in a position is a leader. It must be reiterated that the AL behaviour of leaders situated in organisations have been examined in this paper. Such leaders can execute managerial functions at certain times and leadership functions at other and could be perceived as either leaders or managers by their followers.

About the Author

Biplab Datta is associate professor at Vinod Gupta School of Management, Indian Institute of Technology, Kharagpur, India. He received his Ph.D. degree in Service Quality Management from Indian Institute of Technology Delhi in 2004. His current teaching and research interests include organizational leadership, service quality management and customer relationship management. He has published several papers in Indian and international journals. He has organized and taught a number of management development programmes on leadership and teamwork for executives and faculty members of other management institutes.

Email: bd@vgsom.iitkgp.ernet.in

About Regent

Founded in 1977, Regent University is America’s premier Christian university with more than 11,000 students studying on its 70-acre campus in Virginia Beach, Virginia, and online around the world. The university offers associate, bachelor’s, master’s, and doctoral degrees in more than 150 areas of study including business, communication and the arts, counseling, cybersecurity, divinity, education, government, law, leadership, nursing, healthcare, and psychology. Regent University is ranked the #1 Best Accredited Online College in the United States (Study.com, 2020), the #1 Safest College Campus in Virginia (YourLocalSecurity, 2021), and the #1 Best Online Bachelor’s Program in Virginia for 13 years in a row (U.S. News & World Report, 2025).

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The School of Business & Leadership is a Gold Winner – Best Business School and Best MBA Program by Coastal Virginia Magazine. The school also has earned a top-five ranking by U.S. News & World Report for its online MBA and online graduate business (non-MBA) programs. The school offers both online and on-campus degrees including Master of Business Administration, M.S. in Accounting (Tax or Financial Reporting & Assurance), M.S. in Business Analytics, M.A. in Organizational Leadership, Ph.D. in Organizational Leadership, and Doctor of Strategic Leadership.

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The Fruit of the Spirit in the Context of Leadership

In the study of leadership many models have been proposed based upon sociological research and concepts. While there is a need for a values based model of leadership, values have often been an addendum to a more empirical base for leadership models. Theology can add to this study through applying Biblical studies to the field of leadership and leadership theory, especially in the area of values. This study begins with the nine fruit of the Spirit as listed in Galatians 5:22- 23 and contextualizes them into leadership theory. The leadership model develops a values based theory. This model includes different aspects of leadership from relational issues to vision, integrity, and humility. Though this model is based upon values as listed in Scripture it contains behaviors that could be validated empirically.

Introduction

In the study of leadership, many areas have been examined in the search for a foundation for leadership and its proper development. Leadership has been a topic of study for much of the twentieth century but there is no universal consensus on the definition of leadership except that all the definitions include the ability to influence others to accomplish objectives (House, Hanges, Javidian, Dorfman, & Gupta, 2004). As a result many theories of leadership focused primarily on behavior like leadership practices (Kouzes & Posner, 1995), transformational leadership, and the skills or style approach (Northouse, 2004), while others focused on the culture of the organization (Cameron & Quinn, 2006) including an emphasis on changing leadership behavior.

However, into this conversation has entered the discussion of virtues in leadership. Are virtues valuable in leadership and, if so, which virtues; who determines these needed attributes? Servant leadership has brought some virtues into the leadership discussion such as love, or agapao, in leadership (Patterson, 2003), while others have brought humility to the discussion as important for effective leadership (J. Collins, 2001; Vera & Rodriguez-Lopez, 2004). In addition, there have been issues of spirituality brought into the discussion of leadership recently. At the turn of the century came an accompanying turn to spirituality in the study of leadership with some descriptive approaches to Christian leadership (Bekker, 2009). In the integrative definition of leadership Winston and Patterson (2006) bring together values and spirituality in showing leadership based upon the Beatitudes of Matthew 7 in the Christian Scriptures declaring this to be the base of the virtuous theory of Servant Leadership. Can virtues in the context of spirituality, specifically Christian spirituality, provide foundational issues for leadership in the contemporary context?

One result of neglecting the spiritual dimension in leadership is a void of values; but recently, in response to many public failures, a movement of spirituality is awakening in businesses across the country (Gibbons, 2008b). This return to spirituality includes a focus on values in leadership. The core spiritual values are not only desirable in themselves, they also create greater personal competence and organizational effectiveness and these values are reflected either directly or indirectly by the fruit of the Spirit as described by Paul in the book of Galatians (Gibbons, 2008b). The fruit of the Spirit reflect core values that are spiritual and can build a foundation for effective leadership. These characteristics, as found in Galatians 5, can then help form a values- based leadership model that is ontological, theological, and effective. Spirituality and one’s theology help to form the person or one’s being and from this personhood one responds to life. On some level leadership begins with the inner person; once formed with important values, the person lives out those values that become a foundation for effectiveness in life and leading.

Galatians 5 lists nine fruit of the Spirit that seem important for spirituality as well as being core values for life and leadership. Certain values are important for organizational effectiveness and are spiritual: love, joy, peace, patience and kindness are exact matches with Paul’s list in Galatians. Other important values of equanimity, humility, integrity and service so closely align with the fruit of the Spirit of self-control, gentleness, faithfulness, and generosity that they are synonymous (Gibbons, 2008b). The fruit of the Spirit represents the outworking of the spiritual life of the Christian through the indwelling Christ bringing the person to real maturity (Dunham, 1982). This fruit grows and is expressed so that the Spirit may bring the person to new life in Christ (Dunham). This Christian spirituality is connected to these nine fruit of the Spirit producing life. So, what are these nine fruit and what do they look like; can they be understood so as to be useful in understanding and developing leadership?

The Nine Fruit of the Spirit

The fruit of the Sprit consists of love, joy, peace, longsuffering, kindness, goodness, faithfulness, gentleness and self-control, which represent godly ethical characteristics for all believers – including leadership – that reside in the heart of a person (Collins, 2006). This good fruit makes up the character of the leader (Collins). Character is of vital importance to leadership since externally it provides the point of trust that links leaders with followers and internally it provides the leader’s deepest source of bearings and strongest source of restraint in the use of power (Guinness, 2000). Since these nine characteristics are considered important for organizational effectiveness and foundational for character in values leadership it becomes important to properly define and describe these nine qualities. In addition, it is important to find these nine qualities in organizational and leadership studies to develop convergence between the spiritual values for character and the effectiveness of leadership.

The Fruit of Love

The list in Galatians begins with love. It is eminently fitting that love (agape) should be at the head of the list of virtues for love is the measure and goal of freedom wherein one is set free for the purpose of mutual service in one’s ability to place themselves in loving service to others (Fung, 1988). The key here is not power but love; faith working through love is the sign of true life and this love leads to mutual service (Wright, 2000). Love as an inner characteristic of a person is manifest in service to others or by serving. Love in this form of the word is serving others even though the love may be unmerited (Boice, 1976; Boles, 1993; Hansen, 1994; Kiehl, 1991; Longenecker, 1990). This love concerns the will just as much as it does the emotions; it is a deliberate effort never to seek anything but the best even for those that seek the worst (Barclay, 1958). It is an attitude of appreciation resulting from a conscious evaluation and choice – alternatively, it could be said to be devotion (Friberg & Friberg, 2000). Love is not only an issue in theological discussions, it is also an item of interest in the organizational literature as well. Love is the cornerstone of servant leadership; it is moral love or doing the right things at the right time for the right reasons and the leader must consider the needs of the follower. This includes understanding the gifts and talents of the individual follower to focus on them first (Patterson, 2003). Patterson’s model of servant leadership begins with agapao love which leads to service with outward behavior toward others (Winston, 2007). Love, as found in connection to Galatians 5:22, is agape which is the noun form of agapao (Friberg & Friberg, 2000). This type of leader focuses on the individuals who are being led as an expression of love. This love leads to serving the best interest of others, illuminating the corporate culture, and freeing the leader from self-doubt and self-imposed criticisms (Patterson).

Love is an attribute not only of spirituality as found described in Galatians 5:22 and other places in the Christian Scriptures but also of organizational effectiveness and an important component of leadership. Leadership is a relationship between those who lead and those who follow and effective leaders encourage the hearts of their constituents to carry on through genuine acts of caring to draw people forward (Kouzes & Posner, 1995). Love is an important component of leadership that begins in the person. It can have theological roots but manifests in attitudes and behaviors that provide for leadership effectiveness. Some of these behaviors include serving others (Boice, 1976; Boles, 1993; Kiehl, 1991; Longenecker, 1990), devotion (Friberg & Friberg, 2000), doing the right things (Patterson, 2003), understanding and focusing on the needs and talents of the followers (Patterson, 2003), and genuine acts of caring to encourage the hearts of the followers (Kouzes & Posner, 1995). In this context love is follower focused, considering the needs and best interests of others freeing the leaders from self-focus.

The Fruit of Joy

The immediate question is how can joy, such an emotive word, be a part of effective leadership in the modern context? This word denotes an inner feeling of delight or gladness or a state of blessedness in the person (Friberg & Friberg, 2000). The author of Galatians in another place instructs his readers to be always joyful and to rejoice with others who are rejoicing (Fung, 1988). How can one be always joyful or lead with joy? Joy is not the same as happiness; whereas happiness depends on circumstances, joy comes from a relationship with God. Through joy, the spirit of man is satisfied bringing an important characteristic for leadership of inner confidence in the midst of a storm (Collins, 2006). This joy does not depend on circumstances but is found in triumph over difficult circumstances (Boice, 1976; Boles, 1993; Bruce, 1982; Cole, 1996; Longenecker, 1990; MacGorman, 1971; Stamm & Blackwelder, 1953). Joy is part of an individual’s state of being that develops a confidence in the midst of pressure and trouble. One cannot lead effectively from a position of anxiety and distress in the time of difficult situations or important decisions. This joy is unperturbed by sorrow and trouble but gives proof of its power in the midst of them (Fung). In an organizational setting joy would manifest itself in the leader in both positive and negative situations. Positively it would manifest as an inner delight or confidence in the performance of leadership in the organization. In the negative sense it would manifest as a calm presence or confidence in the midst of pressure and difficult situations or decisions.

Self-confidence includes other concepts such as self-esteem and self-efficacy and most studies on leaders traits find that self-confidence is positively related to effectiveness and advancement. These leaders are more persistent in difficult objectives despite initial problems and setbacks (Yukl, 2002). This calm assurance of one’s ability to accomplish difficult tasks in difficult circumstances becomes an important aspect of leadership effectiveness especially in adverse circumstances. Joy is expressed through confidence in the midst of pressure and self-efficacy for effective leadership.

The Fruit of Peace

Peace means more than the negative notion of an absence of war and trouble; it denotes rather a positive state of wholeness, soundness, and prosperity (Fung, 1988). Peace is a disposition characterized by inner rest and harmony as a state of reconciliation with God and figuratively as an agreement between persons (Friberg & Friberg, 2000). This word expresses total well-being, harmony or wholeness in one’s soul (Barclay, 1958; Boles, 1993; Bruce, 1982; Dunham, 1982; Huxtable & Croskery, 1962; Longenecker, 1990; Stamm & Blackwelder, 1953). Peace is not the absence of conflict in life but the ability to cope with it (Collins, 2006). Peace is wholeness in one’s soul where all of the parts fit together; there is no inner conflict giving the peaceful person not only the ability to have confidence in the midst of pressure but also the presence of mind to make effective decisions to bring change in the midst of the trouble. Joy and peace are intimately connected with joy bringing inner confidence in the midst of pressure while peace brings the ability to move forward to address the pressure in a positive way (Collins, 2006). In the Christian scriptures, Jesus exemplified this peace and modeled it for his disciples. Jesus’ peace was rooted in love for His Father and borne of His perfect relationship with Him; it was characterized by composure, quiet confidence, courage, and single-mindedness throughout his ministry and He wanted this for his disciples so they would not stumble and they could see beyond the hostility of this world (Gibbons, 2008a).

Peace is an inner quality that manifests in certain characteristics important for leadership. These qualities include quiet confidence, courage, composure and single- mindedness, as well as ability to bring progress in the midst of pressure. In his study of successful organizations Collins (2001) found that level 5 leadership was a significant part of successful organizations. Great leaders are those that have a deep personal humility and intense professional will and who are developed partially through the Stockdale paradox of dealing with the brutal facts of the current reality while maintaining faith that you will prevail (Collins). Great leaders are the ones with quiet confidence and composure or deep personal humility and intense professional will or the ability to bring progress under pressure. They are the ones while calm under pressure (joy), can make decisions and move forward with resolve (peace) while maintaining confidence in the process. Peace is quiet confidence and composure in leading and can best be seen as humility, as described as important to leadership by Collins (2001).

The Fruit of Longsuffering

Longsuffering characterizes the person who in relation to those who annoy or oppose exercises patience and refuses to yield to outbursts of anger (Hendricksen, 1977). This is patience under trial and constraint exercised toward others (Friberg & Friberg, 2000). Patience is the work of the Spirit of God when one endures difficult situations and people without losing one’s equanimity (Schreiner, 2010). It is patience and steadfastness: not short-tempered (Barclay, 1958; Boles, 1993; Bruce, 1982; Cole, 1996; Dunham, 1982; Hansen, 1994; Kiehl, 1991; Longenecker, 1990; MacGorman, 1971; Stamm & Blackwelder, 1953). God’s longsuffering toward mankind constitutes the reason for the believer’s patience toward others deferring one’s anger under provocation and refusing to retaliate for wrong done to one’s self (Fung, 1988). Longsuffering is patience with other people even when provoked: not surrendering to anger and retaliation. Regardless of the situation patience requires a conscious effort to restrain the first impulse to complain or strike back to consider the broader implications of the action (Gibbons, 2009b).

Longsuffering or patience involves relationships with other people and is therefore important not only in human relations but leadership as well. Patience emerges as one of the most desired spiritual values at work on Krieger and Seng’s list of values (Gibbons, 2009b). In the organizational environment, patience becomes an important attribute of leading people and organizations. The humility and patience of its leaders will lead an organization to greatness as this organization will be positioned to serve (Rentfrow, 2007). In discussing servant leadership Ndoria (2004) says that it is based upon love and this kind of leadership is patient in hoping and thinking the best of the followers. Even when they make mistakes, the leaders will correct them with love and patience. Patience then is relational in being tolerant of those who oppose, while hoping and thinking the best of followers, and correcting mistakes with patience. In fact, patience goes beyond tolerance to believing the best and inspiring others to rise to the new level of living. It is a desired spiritual value but a needed organizational value as well in bringing the organization to greatness. Longsuffering is patience in relationships, hoping and speaking the best to the followers, and encouraging the heart similar to one of Kouzes and Pozner’s (1995) aspects of leadership.

The Fruit of Kindness

The word kindness is used of God’s kindness in providing salvation. Believer’s imitate God whenever they are generous to others but especially in extending benevolence to those who are not loving in return (Schreiner, 2010). It is a gracious attitude (Friberg & Friberg, 2000). It is a gracious disposition in one who is active in meeting the needs of others (Boice, 1976; Boles, 1993; Dunham, 1982; Hansen, 1994; Huxtable & Croskery, 1962; Lange, 1980). Kindness is truly the activity of love with an emphasis on the gentleness of character that produces pure motives for the actions it will take (Gibbons, 2009a). Kindness is a gracious attitude toward others – even toward the unwilling and resistant; but it includes pure motives as well.

People in organizations want to be treated kindly according to the list from Kreiger and Seng and these acts can be simple like being fully present just to listen to someone – or it can be shown through sensitivity to what someone else is feeling (Gibbons, 2009a). Practically, kindness can be expressed through being aware of the realities or the needs of the people who are around the leader. Servant leaders show more care for the people than the organization’s bottom line, are genuine and real without pretense, show appreciation, listen attentively, and are empathetic (Patterson, 2003). People follow servant leaders freely because they trust them and this theory of leadership provides a rich foundation of ideas for developing future normative theories of leadership (Ciulla, 2004). Kindness is showing appreciation and listening to followers in the tradition of servant leadership.

The Fruit of Goodness

Goodness is a quality of moral excellence or of uprightness (Friberg & Friberg, 2000). It is to be righteous and generous (Boles, 1993; Bruce, 1982; Cole, 1996; Kiehl, 1991; Longenecker, 1990; MacGorman, 1971; Stamm & Blackwelder, 1953). This means those that have the Spirit of God are strengthened to live lives of moral beauty and their decency shines brightly in a world blighted by evil (Schreiner, 2010). Marcus Aurelius said that one should waste no time arguing what a good man should be but be one (Guinness, 2000). Moral excellence or goodness flows from the being or character of the person but affects that person’s actions as well. Character is the inner form or the core of the person and is revealed by what the person does consistently rather than through a random act. Good character is of vital importance to leadership (Guinness). Goodness is to have good character and live in moral excellence; it goes beyond a desire to do good and extends to living a consistent moral life that can be seen.

However, is this moral excellence important to leadership? According to Guinness (2000) good character is vital to leadership. According to Ciulla (2004), ethics is the heart of leadership. While ethics is not moral excellence, ethical behavior can be one manifestation of moral excellence. Leader personality and cognitive moral development interact with aspects of the situation in the determination of ethical and unethical behavior and emotionally mature leaders with a high level of cognitive moral development are more likely to resist social pressure to use unethical practices (Yukl, 2002). Goodness is moral excellence and it can be seen in ethical behavior in leaders which is important to effective leadership. Goodness is godly character or moral behavior and good ethics which is viewed as the heart of good leadership (Ciulla).

The Fruit of Faithfulness

The word here refers to those led by the Spirit that are loyal and dependable; one can count on them to fulfill their responsibilities (Schreiner, 2010). This is the quality that describes the person on whose faithful service one can rely, whose loyalty one can depend, and whose word can be accepted without reservation (Fung, 1988). It is the quality of loyalty and keeping commitments (Barclay, 1958; Boice, 1976; Boles, 1993; Bruce, 1982; Dunham, 1982; Hansen, 1994; MacGorman, 1971; Ridderbos, 1974; Stamm & Blackwelder, 1953). Faithfulness demands honoring our commitments to God and to others even when it is not convenient and it demands standing firm in gospel values (Gibbons, 2010). Faithfulness is the attribute of one who is loyal, who keeps commitments that have been made even when it is difficult. This leader is a person who not only fulfills the proper responsibilities but is a person of integrity. The most basic definition of integrity is honesty and consistency between a person’s values and behavior and that the person is trustworthy (Yukl, 2002). This consistency can be seen in the behavior of leaders in several ways. The leader with integrity is truthful rather than deceptive, keeps promises, fulfills the responsibility of loyalty to followers, can be trusted with confidences, and takes responsibilities for decisions and actions (Yukl). Faithfulness is an internal commitment but it can be seen by the behavior of the person.

Since this attribute is easily seen and experienced by others around the person it is an important aspect of leadership. Personal integrity is an attribute that helps explain leadership effectiveness and it was found that lack of integrity was common among the managers whose careers derailed, whereas the successful ones were regarded as having strong integrity (Yukl, 2002). This faithfulness is a key ingredient in becoming effective in leading others and establishing loyalty among followers. Kouzes and Pozner (1995) call this attribute, credibility in that the leader has actions that are consistent with words spoken, promises are fulfilled, and what is said is done. When followers perceive that their leader has high amounts of this attribute the followers are committed to the organization, have a sense of ownership of the organization and have a strong sense of team spirit (Kouzes & Pozner). Faithfulness reveals itself as integrity and credibility. Faithfulness in the context of leadership is integrity, a core issue for values based leadership and credibility.

The Fruit of Self-Control

Gentleness is a quality of considerate friendliness or meekness, a strength that accommodates to another’s weakness (Friberg & Friberg, 2000). This describes one who is considerate and meek, an evenness of disposition (Barclay, 1958; Boles, 1993; Bruce, 1982; Dunham, 1982; Longenecker, 1990; MacGorman, 1971). Forceful and harsh behavior is not the mark of the Spirit’s work but meekness reflects a transformed heart (Schreiner, 2010). Meekness describes a calm disposition particularly under fire, it describes a way of responding; this person pardons injuries, corrects faults, and rules his own spirit well (Collins, 2006). This word combines two contradictory thoughts both strength and considerate friendliness. This word is used to describe a person in whom strength and gentleness go together. It signifies a humble disposition to the divine will and the unique capacity for avoiding quarrels and it is seen in humility and forbearance toward others (Fung, 1988). Meekness is then seen in relationships with others in one who is gracious and humble in relationships in spite of power, yet is able to correct without being harsh. People are more willing to follow someone they trust, therefore, the leader must trust others: that means being open to others in relationship (Kouzes & Posner, 1995). Building relationships through getting to know followers and allowing them into the leader’s life through considerate friendliness is an expression of meekness that builds people which promotes effective leadership.

The proper building of relationships builds trust. Trust is the central issue in human relationships within and outside of organizations. Without trust one cannot lead. Thus, the most effective leadership situations are those in which each member of the team trusts the others; in fact the more trusted people feel, the better they innovate (Kouzes & Posner, 1995). To develop trust the leader should trust others first, be open to the influence of others, share information and resources, and facilitate relationships (Kouzes & Posner). Building trust is building relationships that are open and are initiated by the leader but also includes a sharing of resources. This type of leadership is not full of secrets or hidden agendas but is full of communication, sharing, and innovation.

Effective performance of a collective task requires mutual trust that is more likely when people understand each other, appreciate diversity, and are able to confront and resolve differences in a constructive way (Yukl, 2002). Many of the fast track managers who failed to reach their potential were found to lack skills in relating to others rather than in technical skills (Ciulla, 2004). Effective leadership involves developing trusting relationships in the context of the organization and its purposes. Gentleness is meekness in developing good open relationships with followers, thereby building trust, and creating a climate of collaboration.

Conclusion

This study establishes a beginning understanding of values based leadership from the fruit of the Spirit in the context of organizational needs and effectiveness. This conceptual framework is based upon research in the literature while contextualizing each of the nine attributes in leadership theory. The fruit of the Spirit can be defined not only from a theological and ontological perspective but also from the perspective of leadership and organizational effectiveness. This leadership perspective focuses on behaviors as well as attitudes that are empirical and can be seen. There are aspects of other leadership theories involved, however; it forms a new theory or model upon which to build leadership. Therefore the model should be investigated and validated through empirical investigations of the components of this construct. This theory has the advantage of being established from a foundation of Christian Scripture but it can be empirically tested since the attributes that begin ontologically can be contextualized in leadership theory as behaviors and attitudes.

These nine attributes for values based leadership in the context of the Fruit of the Spirit can be summarized for further exploration. Love is follower focused considering the needs and best interests of others freeing the leaders from self-focus. Joy is confidence in the midst of pressure and self-efficacy for effective leadership. Peace is quiet confidence and composure in leading and can best be seen as humility.

Longsuffering is patience in relationships, hoping and speaking the best to the followers and encouraging the heart of the individual follower. Kindness is showing appreciation and listening to one’s followers. Goodness is godly character or moral behavior and good ethics. Faithfulness reveals itself as integrity and credibility, core issues in values based leadership. Gentleness is meekness in developing open relationships with followers, thereby building trust while creating a climate of collaboration. Self-control in the context of leadership is fierce personal resolve while developing vision and accomplishing the goals which proceed from the vision of the leader.

Once more fully developed and tested this model could provide a values based model for church leadership based in its primary document, the New Testament. If this model proves effective the church would be uniquely qualified to build this construct of leadership for ministers, instead of copying business models which begin from a different foundation than Scripture and values. The church needs to become the leader in leadership instead of simply following cultural norms. The opportunity to break out of cultural norms could be found in this model for leadership found in Scripture and contextualized in leadership theory but not into an existing model. This model if found viable through research could provide the church with a new way of leadership and set the pace for organizational leadership rather than the church continuing as the step child of a culture enamored with itself.

About the Author

Dr. Crowther received his Ph.D. in Organizational Leadership with a major in Global Leadership from Regent University. In addition, he received an M.A.T.S. degree in Theological Studies from Asbury Seminary. He has led churches for over 20 years and Bible colleges for over 20 years. In addition, he does consulting to help other colleges with accreditation and leadership development. He lives in North Carolina but travels to Latin America where he teaches leadership and theology.

Email: stevcro@regent.edu

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Positive Practices in the Workplace: Impact on Team Climate, Work Engagement and Task Performance

Positivity in organizations accentuates that which is flourishing and life-giving in order to discover and promote the best of the human condition, exemplified in the recent focus on positive practices, behaviors that are caring, supporting, forgiving, inspiring, meaningful, and respectful (Cameron, Mora, Leutscher, & Calarco, 2011). Such practices have been found to predict organizational performance by enhancing positive affect in employees. The research question for the project concerned how these positive employee practices affect work engagement and task performance, including the moderating effect of social climate. A quantitative study of positivity in a team-based food service organization in southern California (N = 144) elucidated direct relationships between positive practices, social climate, work engagement, and task performance, but no moderating effect of social climate, with all relationships statistically significant. Finer delineation of positive practices demonstrated the importance of team members discovering meaning in their work through mutual interaction that promotes employee trust, respect, and confidence, with employees believing the best in each other and inspiring each other in their performance. The findings suggest that in an intensive service climate, positivity can foster team member engagement and performance through actions that promote greater meaningfulness in work and that demonstrate appreciation and affirmation.

The nature of today’s competitive organizational environments requires the workplace to expand beyond a mentality of survival to envision new pathways toward better- than-average performance (Luthans & Youssef, 2007). In order to pursue optimal performance, organizations are shifting their focus from a fixation on weaknesses to facilitating conditions that promote human flourishing (Cameron, 2010). Traditional approaches to organizational change and development have focused on identifying problems and deficiencies, a form of “deficit thinking” (Whitney, 1998, p. 315) that follows the logic of disease (Cunha, Cunha, & Rego, 2009; Weisbord, 1976). However, a more positive focus has arisen that looks for what is flourishing and life-giving in order to discover and promote the best of the human condition (Cameron & Caza, 2004).

Positivity in organizations is rooted in positive psychology’s shift away from what is wrong with people to what is right, good, and makes life worth living (Seligman & Csikszentmihalyi, 2000; Snyder & Lopez, 2002). It focuses on strengths, capabilities, and possibilities, rather than problems, deficits, and weakness (Cameron, 2008), and attention is given to what is improving and has potential, thus “building on what is working [rather] than obsess[ing] about what is not working” (Schein, 2000, p. xxix). Spreitzer and Cameron (2012) highlighted positivity in organizations:

Positive businesses achieve [high performance and profitability] by bringing out the best in their people to help them grow, and by leveraging their unique strengths and talents … design[ing] work to empower people and make work meaningful (p. 87).

Capturing many of these aspects of positivity is the recent focus on positive practices, behaviors that are caring, supporting, forgiving, inspiring, meaningful, and respectful (Cameron, Mora, Leutscher, & Calarco, 2011). Such practices have been found to predict organizational performance by enhancing positive affect in employees and inspiring positive worker attitudes. Positivity can lead to a positive work environment (PWE), a type of social climate that contributes to employee well-being (Hartel & Ashkanasy, 2011).

Empirical research studies have confirmed that organizations are “doing well” because they are “doing good” (Spreitzer & Cameron, 2012); when employees bring out the best in each other, the results include positive outcomes for both employees (who are vitalized to grow, develop, and perform better) and the organization (outcomes that are characterized by profitability, innovation, and sustainability) (Chen, 2014; Meyer, 2015; Ozcelik, Langton, & Aldrich, 2008). A valuable outcome drawn from positive psychology that evidences significant work effort on the part of employees is work engagement, a consistent psychological state that leads to better employee performance (Bakker, Schaufeli, Leiter, & Travis, 2008).

Cameron et al. (2011) noted that positive practices capture the fullest breadth of positivity, namely “behaviors, techniques, routines” (p. 269) that reflect exceptional and virtuous attitudes and actions, thus designing a positive practices scale with six dimensions:

  • Respect: people trust and have confidence in one another, treating each other with integrity, dignity, and gratitude.
  • Care: people show interest in and respond to one another, genuinely caring for each other as friends.
  • Support: people honor and support one another in their endeavors, building strong relationships through kindness and helping those who are struggling.
  • Inspiration: people share enthusiasm and inspire one another by acknowledging the good they see in each other.
  • Meaning: people are motivated, renewed, and elevated by their work as they see the larger purpose in work and discover its profound meaning.
  • Forgiveness: people do not place blame on one another for errors, but forgive each other’s mistakes.

Indicating a “dearth of research” on positive practices and their effects, Cameron et al. (2011, p. 267) called for additional research on positivity, including potential moderating and mediating mechanisms in positivity’s effect on employee and organizational outcomes. In response, the current study concerns how positive practices are related to a positive work environment (PWE), a type of social and emotional climate that contributes to employee well-being and flourishing, and to desirable employee outcomes, namely work engagement and task performance. The research question for this study is: Which positive practices have the greatest effect on employee engagement and performance, and does a PWE moderate these relationships?

Literature Review

The potential of positivity has been recognized since the time of ancient Greek mythology (the Pygmalion effect) (Avey, Reichard, Luthans, & Mhatre, 2011). Positivity is rooted in Aristotle’s concept of eudaimonia—that inclination exists in all human systems toward flourishing and the achievement of the highest aspirations, extolling the value of excellence and goodness for its own sake (Ryan & Deci, 2001; Cameron, 2011). Positivity does not neglect or exclude negative conditions or events in organizations such as problems, difficulties, or hardships; indeed, organizations can experience vitality and flourish amidst setbacks and challenging demands (Cameron & Caza, 2004). Positivity and negativity are not simply opposite ends of the same spectrum with one cancelling the other (Youssef & Luthans, 2012). Rather, positivity is paradoxical in that it focuses on strengths, capabilities, and possibilities, while also incorporating negative events and looking for the value present in problems, obstacles, and challenges (Cameron, 2008). Positive organizational scholarship (POS) has emerged as “the study of especially positive outcomes, processes, and attributes of organizations and their members” (Cameron et al., 2003, p. 4), and there is now an accumulating body of POS research (Caza & Caza, 2008) with research and theory development in positivity rapidly expanding (Avey, Avolio, & Luthans, 2011).

According to Cameron and associates (Cameron, 2008, 2011; Cameron et al. 2011; Cameron & Spreitzer, 2012; Spreitzer & Cameron, 2012), positivity in organizational studies has come to reflect four related meanings. First, positivity concerns exceptional performance and extraordinarily positive outcomes. These include spectacular and

surprising results that exceed expectations or business as usual and reflect positive deviance, defined by Spreitzer and Sonenshein (2004, p. 841) as “intentional behaviors that significantly depart from the norms of a referent group in honorable ways.” Second, positivity takes an affirmative bias. It focuses on strengths and abundance, rather than weaknesses and deficit. Positivity endeavors to unlock, broaden, and amplify the positive emotions of employees (Fredrickson, 2001) so that a heliocentric or life-giving effect occurs toward positive energy and climate. This includes affirmative and strength-building approaches, such as appreciative inquiry (AI), that focus on positive organizational aspects, signature strengths, and potential opportunities (Cooperrider & Srivasta, 1987; Cooperrider & Whitney, 2001). Third, positivity focuses on virtuousness, well-being, or the best of the human condition. It examines excellence and goodness for its own sake. Well-being concerns “optimal psychological functioning and experience” (Ryan & Deci, 2011, p. 142) and promotes a virtuous lifestyle that makes life worth living and promotes human flourishing (Ryff & Singer, 1998; Ryan & Deci, 2001; Culbertson, Fullagar, & Mills, 2010; Lambert, Passmore, & Holder, 2015). Virtuous is what “individuals and organizations aspire to be when they are at their very best” (Cameron, Dutton, & Quinn, 2003, p. 2). Fourth, positivity concerns adopting an alternative perspective. It reinterprets challenges and obstacles as opportunities for strength-building, rather than problem and tragedy, and focuses on generative processes of learning, adaptation, and the discovery of positive outcomes (James & Wooten, 2012). These outgrowths of positive psychology, as applied in organizations, have been investigated in two interrelated fields: positive organizational behavior (POB) and positive organizational scholarship (POS).

POB concerns “the study and application of positively oriented human resource strengths and psychological capacities” (Luthans, 2002a, p. 39) and has been subjected to an expansive amount of research focused primarily on its “major” (Avey, Reichard, Luthans, & Mhatre, 2011, p. 128) or “core construct” (Avey et al., 2011) termed psychological capital, or PsyCap, which consists of the four positive psychological resources of hope, optimism, efficacy, and resilience. Over the past decade, numerous studies have investigated the relationship between PsyCap and various employee attitudinal, action-based, and achievement-oriented outcomes, with now more than sixty published papers on PsyCap (Newman, Ucbasaran, Zhu, & Hirst, 2014). Hackman (2009) noted the impressive “passion and productivity” accompanying POB research (p. 309). However, the criteria for the components of PsyCap such as being related to POB and being both state-like and developmental (Luthans, 2002a, 2002b, Luthans, Youssef, & Avolio, 2007) limits positivity to the framework of PsyCap’s core construct; a “positive appraisal of circumstances and probability for success based on motivated effort and perseverance” (Luthans, Avolio, Avey, & Norman, 2007, p. 550). The components of PsyCap reflect “motivational propensities,” that are cognitive in nature and reflect psychological resources that have accrued through investment and experiential outcomes (Luthans et al., 2007, p. 542).

In contrast to POB, POS is a broader concept, is more organization level, addresses more stable traits than states (Cameron, Dutton, & Quinn, 2003), comprises a wider range of positivity (Luthans & Youssef, 2007; Kelloway, 2011), and is more about processes and practices than psychological states (Wright & Quick, 2009a). (However, Wright and Quick [2009b] questioned the state/trait distinction between POB/POS as being methodologically unclear.) POS focuses on positivity within numerous positive attributes (Cameron & Spreitzer, 2012) addressing both positive capabilities and activities that contribute to flourishing organizations. Key in POS is establishing a linkage between positive behaviors and how they generate both individual and organizational positive outcomes (Cameron et al., 2011).

Positive Practices

As noted, positive practices concern behaviors and techniques that are affirming and virtuous (Cameron et al., 2011). Key is how their enactment in work relationships produces positive emotions, which can affect others through social contagion processes (Barsade, 2002), such as how positive mood states enhance a reciprocal effect of helping behaviors, while also increasing self-efficacy and task performance (Tsai, Chen, & Liu, 2007). Exposure to positive practices engenders positive emotions, which leads to elevated performance (Cameron et al., 2011). It has been demonstrated in work teams that positivity not only enhances performance, but others’ positivity can neutralize an individual’s low positivity, uplifting his or her positivity and performance (Livi, Alessandri, Caprara, & Pierro, 2015). Baker, Cross, and associates (2003, 2004) identified those who uplift and boost others as “positive energizers” who enact positive energy as a behavioral mechanism, with research indicating that high performance organizations have three times as many positive energizers as average organizations do, concluding that positive energy is a behavioral mechanism (as cited in Caza & Cameron, 2009, p.

108).

Cameron et al. (2011) suggested that mechanisms for the effect of positive practices on organizational effectiveness involve amplification (enhancing positive emotions and enabling effective social connections), buffering (shielding and reducing negative effects of stress, trauma, and illness), and heliotropism (fostering positive energy and life- giving effects that elevate performance). According to Bright, Cameron, and Caza (2006), virtues represent that which is good, human, and produces social betterment, meaning that virtuousness transcends instrumental reciprocity in relationships and focuses on the right thing to do in respect to the other without intent of return (Peterson & Seligman, 2004). Observing and experiencing virtuousness creates “upward spirals” (Fredrickson & Joiner, 2002, p. 172) of positivity as, for example, how enjoyment, cooperation, and commitment in work teams engenders “charged behavior” (Sethi & Nicholson, 2001, p. 155).

Key in self-determination processes (Ryan & Deci, 2000) is how positive work relationships energize intention, action, and direction, shaping how people think, feel, and act (Kahn, 2007; Colbert, Bono, & Purvanova, 2016). Thus, Spreitzer, Sutcliffe, Dutton, Sonenshein, and Grant (2005) posited that thriving at work is socially embedded, meaning that experiences of vitality, energy, feeling valued, and being productive, involves dynamic connections with others. Miller and Stiver’s (1997) relational view of self-development suggests that zest comes from relational connection to others. Energy is an important organizational resource that increases employees’ capacity for action, enabling them to do their work more effectively (Spreitzer, Quinn, & Lam, 2012). Zest at work contributes to experiences of engagement in work, and is contagious, being related to group morale (Peterson, Park, Hall, & Seligman, 2009). The clear suggestion is that positive practices can create a charged atmosphere of positive affect that produces energy, zest, and a vitality in social work relationships and interaction, leading to better performance.

Positive Work Environment

Wilderom (2011) suggested that if all persons who comprise the culture and climate of an organization are treated as positively as possible a contagion effect of better contribution is likely to happen. Hartel and Ashkanasy (2011) identified a climate for well-being—one where procedures and practices promote employees “feeling good and worthwhile in the workplace” (Schneider, Ehrhart, & Macey, 2011, p. 30)—as a positive work environment (PWE). These PWEs are characterized by elevating interactions, social inclusion, and uplifting emotions.

Elevating Interactions

A PWE is characterized by the enacted values of openness, friendship, collaboration, encouragement, personal freedom, and trust that enhances positive affect and well-being. A climate characterized by such positive social values has been found to engender work involvement (Glisson et al., 2008), positive worker attitudes (Aarons & Sawitzky, 2006), and positive affect (Schulte, Ostroff, Shmulyian, & Kinicki, 2009). Key in studies of positive climate is how performance can be mediated or moderated by employee positive affect and well-being (Patterson, Warr, & West, 2004; Dawson, Gonzalez-Roma, Davis, & West, 2008), where the affective tone of a group can establish a global team climate through members’ social interactions (West & Richter, 2011). Carr, Schmidt, Ford, and DeShon (2003) found that the effect of positive climate on workers’ sense of well-being and performance in the workplace was more affective (sense of warmth and fellowship) than cognitive (perception of autonomy and growth) or instrumental (structure of tasks and work processes). Thus, relational support is key in positive organizational climates (Shadur, Kienzle, & Rodwell, 1999).

Social Inclusion

A PWE emphasizes beliefs and behaviors that promote respect, trust, dignity, and social inclusion. Ferris et al. (2009) identified work relationships as patterns of exchanges geared toward accomplishing objectives or goals, which involve mutuality between employees that is both attitudinal and behavioral; reflecting qualities such as respect, trust, attention, and liking. High quality employee-employee relations are marked by vitality and positivity and based on mutual respect for the dignity of the other and the centrality of trust (Dutton & Ragins, 2007). A clear way to energize the workplace and increase involvement is through these high-quality interpersonal relationships (Dutton, 2003; Atwater & Carmeli, 2009).

Uplifting Emotions

A PWE is a positive emotional climate that broadens and builds employees’ potential to perceive, think, and act. Fredrickson and associates’ (2001, 2002, 2005) broaden-and-build theory suggests that experiences of positive emotions such as interest, excitement, enthusiasm, and attentiveness (Watson, Clark, & Tellegen, 1988) broaden people’s thought-action repertoires (e.g., fight or flight responses) and thus build their mental, emotional, social, and physical resources. Broadening effects include social inclusion (Isen & Daubman, 1984), enhanced attention to others and sense of oneness (Waugh & Fredrickson, 2006), and increased trust (Dunn & Schweitzer, 2005). Positive emotions have also been linked to enhanced sociability and improved social interactions (Burger & Caldwell, 2000; Cunningham, 1988) and friendships (Berry, Willingham, & Thayer, 2000).

Thus, the cultivation of a PWE or positive social climate seems consistent with the social and emotional contagion processes that accompany Cameron et al.’s (2011) relationally- rich positive practices, with positive emotions underlying the interactions between members that promote flourishing at work. Thus, the following hypothesis can be proposed:

H1: There will be a positive relationship between positive practices and social climate.

Work Engagement

Work engagement has been related to positive psychology’s emphasis on workplace well-being, recognized as a positive and fulfilling work-related state of mind that involves an energetic and effective connection with work activities (Schaufeli, Bakker, & Salanova, 2006). It reflects the degree to which employees apply themselves to their work roles, suggesting their psychological presence in a role, or being “fully there” (Kahn, 1992, p. 321). Engaged employees exert significant effort toward their work but not out of compulsion, a workaholic condition, or Type-A behavior (Bakker, Schaufeli, Leiter, & Taris, 2008). Schaufeli, Bakker et al. (2008) indicated that antecedents to employee engagement include positive self-esteem, optimism, or a positive belief that good outcomes will be experienced, as well as being self-efficacious and believing that participation at work will satisfy need. In addition, engaged workers perform better because they experience positive emotions, including happiness, joy, and enthusiasm, have better psychological health, and transfer their engagement to others (Bakker et al., 2008). Engagement is “shared by employees in the workplace,” involving “positive psychological contagion processes” (morale, cohesion, rapport) (Salanova, Agut, & Peiro, 2005, p. 1218). Work engagement has three interrelated dimensions (Schaufeli & Bakker, 2006; Salanova et al., 2005):

  • Vigor, which is characterized by high energy, mental resilience, and a willingness to invest extra effort and persistence in one’s work.
  • Dedication, which refers to being strongly involved in one’s work, with a sense of purpose, enthusiasm, inspiration, pride, and challenge.
  • Adsorption, which indicates concentration, happiness with work, and being deeply and fully engrossed in work, where time passes quickly and detachment from work is difficult

Work engagement is an important attitudinal employee outcome, for it indicates the quality of participation in work role activities (Rothbard, 2001). It suggests both the degree of investment of personal energies into role behaviors (self-employment), as well as the display of the self at work (self-expression), and therefore reflects a holistic investment of the self in one’s work role. The value of work engagement in relation to positivity is suggested by its causal effect on other exceptional performance outcomes, such as increased task performance and organizational citizenship behaviors (Rich, LePine, & Crawford, 2010), overall performance (Schaufeli & Salanova, 2007; Bakker & Demerouti, 2008), and business-unit performance (Harter, Schmidt, & Hayes, 2002). Notably, work engagement also predicts and enhances service climate in restaurant teams, for engagement produces “common perceptions about the quality of the service” (i.e., service climate), leading to “favorable employee performance” (Salanova et al., 2005, p. 1218).

H2: There will be a positive relationship between positive practices and work engagement.

Task Performance

Kahn (1990) demonstrated that work engagement, emotional connection to other organizational members, and task performance are all interrelated, where functionality in relationships is dependent upon members feeling emotionally bound to each other, “experiences of feeling themselves joined, seen and felt, known, and not alone” in the context of work (Kahn, 1998, p. 41, as cited in Ozcelik et al., 2008, p. 188). According to Spreitzer et al. (2005) individuals are more likely to thrive when they focus on their tasks at hand, due to adsorption with work and accompanying energy; engagement and performance go hand in hand. Positive functioning and performance have been related to Csikszentmihalyi’s (1990) concept of flow, which concerns employee’s feelings of complete involvement in a task, such that all is forgotten but the task itself (Culbertson et al., 2010). Task performance in teams, as indicated by the quantity of team member output and whether team goals are reached, is also dependent upon the quality of the team members’ group experience (Aube & Rousseau, 2005), the latter denoting group well-being or “the extent to which the social climate within the work team is positive,” reflecting a “we are in it together” attitude within a team, where pursuit of goals and desired performance encourage the maintenance of positive relationships within the team (Aube & Rousseau, 2005, p. 191). Positive affective tone in groups is amplified through rich and supportive team member interactions, which enhance team effectiveness (West & Richter, 2011).

H3: There will be a positive relationship between positive practices and task performance.

Further, it proposed that a positive social climate, being integral to how positive, uplifting interactions elevate employee emotions and mutually charge work behavior, will moderate the relationship between positive practices and employee outcomes:

H4: Social climate will moderate the relationship between positive practices and work engagement.

H5: Social climate will moderate the relationship between positive practices and task performance.

These relationships are depicted in Figure 1.

Social climate contributes to positive practices which increase work engagement and task performance.
Fig. 1. Diagram depicting the relationship between positive practices (respect, care, support, meaning, inspiration, forgiveness) and the positive outcomes of work engagement and task performance, as mediated by a positive work environment (PWE, or social climate).

Method

The project focused on a rapidly expanding gourmet sandwich and salad restaurant chain in southern California named Urbane Café, currently with twelve locations (Ventura, Oxnard, Camarillo, Thousand Oaks, Agoura Hills, Simi Valley, San Luis Obispo, Northridge, Valencia, Mira Mesa, San Diego, and Temecula). Investigating positivity at Urbane Café is strategic, for it promotes a service climate characterized by “fast, friendly service and a warm, inviting environment” that “cares for [its] employees” (“About Urbane”). Having dined at Urbane Café since its flagship store opened in Ventura in 2003, I have perceived the café’s positive, energetic, friendly, and efficient atmosphere. Researched focused on the nature of positivity in relation to social and service climates in restaurants and the interaction of their team members is valuable for understanding how climate energizes work teams and promotes customer service and satisfaction (Schneider, White, & Paul, 1998; Salanova et al., 2005). The results could be generalizable to other types of service climate organizations.

Sampling and Procedures

The research involved a nonexperimental, cross-sectional study using a voluntary survey questionnaire. A cover letter discussing employee privacy and confidentiality was included. Human subject review board (HSRB) approval was obtained from Regent University prior to commencing the study. Surveys were made available to all employees at the twelve Urbane Café locations in southern California (N ≈ 230), including team members, shift leads, and assistant managers. The managers at the cafes facilitated team members completing the surveys during their work breaks in a private location at each cafe. The survey included demographic questions concerning gender, age, job tenure, and café location.

Measures

Positive Practices

Cameron et al.’s (2011) 29-item positive practices scale was used to measure positive practices. The authors found that the scale, in two separate studies, had six distinct dimensions: a) caring (4 items) (α = .928, .946), b) forgiveness (3 items) (α = .850, .887), c) inspiration (3 items) (α = .904, .925), d) meaning (5 items) (α = .903, .919), e) dignity, or respect (7 items) (α = .941, .954), and f) support (7 items) (α = .948, .958). The dimensions and items use a 5-point Likert scale, ranging from 1 = “strongly disagree” to 5 = “strongly agree.” Cameron et al. did not test specific hypotheses, stating, “Not enough information [regarding the relation of positive practices to performance outcomes] is available to formulate precise hypotheses” (p. 269). To my knowledge this scale has not been used apart from Cameron et al.’s initial studies, so the current study is the first to test hypotheses, based on the current literature. Permission was received from Dr. Kim Cameron to use the scale. Respondents were asked to respond to the positive practice items/statements and rate how they perceive their work team on a scale of 1 to 5, such as “We treat each other with respect,” and “We show kindness to one another.”

PWE

To measure a PWE, Aube and Rousseau’s (2005) 3-item scale for quality of group experience, or group well-being, was used, which was identified as a social climate scale that assesses the degree of positivity in work teams. Aube and Rousseau (p. 196) found their scale to have excellent reliability (α = .96). The scale is set to a 5-point Likert scale with responses ranging from 1, “not true at all,” to 5, “totally true.” Permission was obtained from Dr. Caroline Aube to use the scale. Respondents will be asked to rate their work team relative to the items, such as “The social climate in our work team is good,” and “In our team, relationships are harmonious.”

Work Engagement

Work engagement was measured using the Ultretcht Work Engagement Scale-9 (UWES-9) by Schaufeli et al. (2006). The 9-item measure (short form) uses a 7-point Likert scale, with responses ranging from 0, “Never” to 6, “Every day.” Sample items include “At work, I feel bursting with energy,” and “I am enthusiastic about my job.” The scale is available at Dr. Wilmar Schaufeli’s personal website (http://www.wilmarschaufeli.nl/), which grants permission for use of the survey, per conditions fulfilled, such as it being used for non-commercial purposes and results sent to Dr. Schaufeli for further validation of the instrument.

Task Performance

Aube and Rousseau’s (2005) 3-item scale for team performance was used for task performance. Aube and Rousseau (p. 196) found the scale to have good reliability (α = .82). The scale is set to a 5-point Likert scale, with responses ranging from 1, “not true at all” to 5, “totally true.” Permission was obtained from Dr. Caroline Aube to use the scale. Respondents will be asked to rate their work team relative to the items, such as “The members of this team produce good quality work” and “This team is productive.” The completed questionnaire had a total of 47 items and was designed using SurveyMonkey (https://www.surveymonkey.com/r/ZC3YZGT). Due to limited group email capability, hard copies of the survey were prepared, and delivered to the 12 Urbane Café locations, as data collection took place April 10th – 17th, 2017.

Results

Data from the surveys (N = 144, 63% response rate) were entered into SPSS 23.0 for analysis, showing a gender distribution of 47% male and 53% female, with age range distributions of 16-20 years at 19%, 21-30 years at 39%, 31-40 years at 25%, and over 40 years at 17%, and job tenure range distributions of 0-1 year at 43%, between 1 and 5 years at 40%, and more than 5 years at 17%. Overall ratings by team member participants for the variables (converting means to frequency percentages) showed positive practices rated at 70%, social climate at 73%, task performance at 79%, and work engagement at 84%. Specific positive practices were rated as follows: respect at 72%, care at 70%, support at 73%, meaning at 69%, inspiration at 67%, and forgiveness at 66%. The correlation and reliability analyses are shown in Table 1 (next page).

The internal consistency reliability values (Cronbach’s α) show acceptability for all scales (DeVellis, 1991; Nunnally, 1978; Hair, Black, Babin, & Anderson, 2010). According to Cozby and Bates (2012), correlation between each item and the total score is important (the item-total correlations), for without this correlation, such items could be “measuring a different variable” (p. 99). With the six positive practice dimensions showing acceptable α values, and the α value for the composite positive practices variable (reflecting all six scales) indicating a very high value (.97), this suggests the viability of using positive practices as a higher order variable for hypotheses testing.

Table 1
Correlation and Reliability Analyses – All Variables

VariableMSD1.2.3.4.5.6.7.8.9.10.11.12.13.
1. Positive Practices3.80.71(.97)
2. Respect3.91.76.94b(.91)
3. Caring3.80.75.90b.79b(.85)
4. Support3.92.74.92b.84b.82b(.88)
5. Meaning3.75.82.87b.77b.76b.81b(.88)
6. Inspiration3.69.93.87b.80b.76b.78b.68b(.87)
7. Forgiveness3.65.82.80b.76b.62b.65b.63b.56b(.70)
8. Social Climate3.90.95.78b.75b.70b.71b.65b.70b.64b(.91)
9. Task Performance4.15.88.72b.71b.66b.64b.61b.67b.52b.78b(.87)
10. Work Engagement5.01.99.35b.25b.31b.35b.42b.34b.19a.31b.31b(.91)
11. Vigor5.021.12.28b.19a.23b.28b.36b.26b.17b.25b.25b.93b(.81)
12. Absorption4.931.06.31b.30b.30b.33b.34b.30b.13.29b.31b.89b.74b(.71)
13. Dedication5.091.07.38b.29b.31b.37b.45b.37b.20a.32b.32b.92b.82b.71b  (.83)
N = 144; diagonals (in parentheses) are reliability coefficients; a p ≤ .05 (2-tailed); b p ≤ .01 (2-tailed)

The correlation between positive practices and work engagement, though weak (.35), was significant, and the correlations between positive practices and social climate (.78) and task performance (.72) were moderately strong and significant. The work engagement dimensions were also highly correlated with each other (r values ranging from .71 to .93).

Effect of Positive Practices

Simple linear regression was run on the relationship between positive practices and social climate, work engagement, and task performance, with results shown in Table 2:

Table 2
Linear Regression Results – Positive Practices as Independent Variable

Dependent Variable              r            R2            F              B           β          C         SE

Social Climate.784.615226.7b1.056.784-.085.070
Task Performance.719.517152.1b.894.719.764.072
Work Engagement.353.12420.2b.496.3533.136.110
a p ≤ .05 (2-tailed); b p ≤ .01 (2-tailed)

Each of the relationships between positive practices and the dependent variables was also tested while controlling for the two other dependent variables (results not shown), but in each case the ΔR2 did not suggest a confounding variable problem for either work engagement (ΔR2 = .023), social climate (ΔR2 = .096), or task performance (ΔR2 = .026). Testing the relationship between positive practices and the dependent variables while controlling for gender, age, and job tenure showed slight improvement of variance between positive practices and social climate (ΔR2 = .021) and task performance (ΔR2 = .014), and slightly more confounding effect with work engagement (ΔR2 = .149). Though negative correlations were found between social climate and age (r= -202), job tenure (-.297), and gender (-.049), and between task performance and age (r= -241), job tenure (r = -286), and gender (-.007), there was a slight positive correlation between work engagement and age (r = .182). Based on the results in Table 2, H1, H2, and H3 are confirmed, though the effect size for positive practices and social climate and task performance is much greater than work engagement, and the potential confounding effect between age and work engagement should be noted.

Hierarchical linear regression was run to test the moderating effect of social climate on the relationship between positive practices and work engagement and task performance, with the results shown in Table 3:

Table 3
Hierarchical Linear Regression Results – Social Climate as Mediator

Dependent Variabler R2FBβC ΔR2
Task Performance
Model 1 (Gender, Age, Tenure).320.1024.640a-.055*-.0315.014
Model 2 (Positive Practices).813.66046.678b.297**.234.939.558
Model 3 (Positive Practices x Social Climate).816.66639.505b.086***.5261.893.005
Work Engagement
Model 1 (Gender, Age, Tenure).265.0703.081a.234*.2325.228
Model 2 (Positive Practices).455.2076.271b.435**.3132.865.137
Model 3 (Positive Practices x Social Climate).478.2295.889b.190***1.0644.977.022
* Age only; ** Positive Practices only; *** PP x SC only; a p ≤ .05 (2-tailed); b p ≤ .01 (2-tailed)

The results show that the moderating effect of social climate on the relationships between positive practices and task performance (ΔR2 = .005) and work engagement (ΔR2 = .022), though statistically significant, are negligible. Thus, H4 and H5 are not confirmed.

Positive Practice Dimensions

With H1, H2, and H3 confirmed, multiple regression analysis was run to delineate which positive practice dimensions (respect, care, support, meaning, inspiration, and forgiveness) were most strongly associated with social climate, work engagement, and task performance. Multiple regression analysis is the preferred method when “the intent of the analysis is to determine whether certain predictor variables explain or account for an outcome measure,” with all the variables “entered into the equation simultaneously” (Girden & Kabacoff, 2011, p. 130). Multiple regression was run on the relationship between the positive practices and each of the outcome variables of social climate, work engagement, and task performance, both with and without controlling for the other variables, including the demographic variables. Table 4 (on the next page) shows the results of the multiple regression analysis (both with and without control are indicated), with partial regression coefficients shown for the specific positive practice dimensions.

The correlations between the positive practice dimensions and social climate from Table 1 showed moderately strong positive associations, ranging from forgiveness (r = .64) to respect (r = .75), while linear regression results from Table 2 showed that social climate accounted for the highest percentage of variance for the effect of positive practices (61.5%), with a good coefficient (β = .784). The multiple regression results shown in Table 4 are more informative for specific practices, showing in Model 1 (without control) that the positive practices of respect and inspiration, and to a lesser degree forgiveness, were more associated with social climate than other dimensions, though the effect of respect was removed when controlling for all other variables (Model 2), while forgiveness increased.

The correlation between specific positive practice dimensions and task performance from Table 1 were all reasonably good, ranging from forgiveness (r = .52) to respect (r =

.71), while the linear regression results in Table 2 showed a good relationship (β = .719). From Table 4, multiple regression indicated that the positive practice dimension of respect had the strongest association with task performance (Model 1), with inspiration also showing contribution, though the effect of inspiration was removed when controlling for other variables (Model 2).

The correlation between specific positive practice dimensions and work engagement from Table 1 showed weak correlation, ranging from forgiveness (r = .19) to meaning (r

= .42), while linear regression from Table 2 showed a weak coefficient (β = .353), though both analyses were significant (p ≤ .001). The multiple regression analysis showed that meaning had a predominate association with work engagement compared to other dimensions, with inspiration also showing effect, with little change while controlling for other variables (Model 2).

Table 4
Multiple Regression Results – Positive Practice Dimension

Positive practices dimensions
* Model summary for multiple regression with positive practices dimensions; ** B, β values from linear regression with positive practices composite variable; *** Control variables: gender, age, and tenure, other two dependents; a p ≤ .05 (2-tailed); b p ≤ .01 (2-tailed)

Discussion

Positive practices denote virtuous behaviors that promote the best of the human condition, evidenced in a healthy work climate, employee well-being, and positive and exceptional outcomes. The correlation between positive practices and the work outcomes, all significant, suggest a strong association with task performance (r = .72) and social climate (r = .78), but a weaker association with work engagement (r = .35), but showed good association to each other (r = .78). The interrelationships from the linear regression parallel the correlation analysis. There were moderately strong relationships between positive practices and both social climate (β = .784) and task performance (β = .719), but a weaker relationship with work engagement (β = .353), a moderately strong relationship between social climate and task performance (β = .783), but a weaker relationship between work engagement and both social climate (β = .313) and task performance (β = .309). These relationships are shown in Figure 2.

The diagram depicts the outcomes of positive practices on work engagement, task performance, and social climate.
Fig. 2. Diagram depicting the strength of relationship between positive practices and the outcomes of social climate, task performance, and work engagement, along with the interrelationships between the outcome variables (from simple linear regression analyses).

The linear regression analyses are shown, indicating significant interrelationships between all the variables, while the hierarchical regression analysis revealed a lack of moderating effect of social climate on the relationship between positive practices and both work engagement and task performance. Rather than having a moderating role, a healthy social climate or positive work environment both result from and contribute to task performance. Climate and performance in work teams may have a mutually affective relationship (Schneider et al., 1998; Hartel, Gough, & Hartel, 2008). These relationships suggest that positive practices promote a healthy social climate characterized by positive identity (Chen, 2014), positive social contagion (Cameron et al., 2011), synergistic teamwork (Salanova et al. 2005), and the effect of an upward spiral of good deeds (Fredrickson, 2003), amplifying positive emotions and leading to enhanced performance (Tsai et al., 2007; Cameron et al., 2011).

The weaker relationships between positive practices and work engagement, and similar linkage between both social climate and task performance and work engagement, could suggest that work engagement is not entirely a causal result of employee relationships, but more related to employee self-concepts. Work engagement concerns employee psychological connection to work tasks with antecedents related to personal resources, such as optimism, self-esteem, and self-efficacy, establishing employees’ sense of

presence in relation to the work task (Bakker et al., 2008; Rothbard & Patil, 2012). The multiple regression results identified the positive practices of meaning (β = .461) and inspiration (β = .263) as having the majority impact on work engagement. Further multiple regression analysis of the relationships between the positive practice of meaning and the work engagement dimensions of vigor (β = -.055), adsorption (β =

.066), and dedication (β = .444) (overall model, r = .450, R2 = .20, F [3,143] = 11.780, p ≤

.001) suggests that a relationship between meaning in work, where employees experience their work being elevating, renewing, motivating, and granting a sense of purpose (meaning items), is related to employees feeling dedicated to the work task through increased enthusiasm, inspiration, and a sense of accomplishment (dedication items) (statistics not shown in table). According to Bakker et al. (2008, p. 188), dedication means being strongly involved in one’s work through a “sense of significance”—a clear connection between meaningfulness at work and engagement in work. It is likely that team members mutually inspire each other in their confidence and identity, for meaningfulness stems from members feeling worthwhile, useful, and valuable (Rich et al., 2010).

The stronger relationship between positive practices and the outcomes of social climate and task performance suggest the possibility of specific virtuous behaviors having a casual effect upon team dynamics. Regressing positive practices on the outcome of social climate suggested mixed results in regards to the dimensions of respect and care, with these effects disappearing when controlling for other variables (possibly due to their strong contribution to task performance), but inspiration (β = .216) and forgiveness (β = .210) showed effect. These positive practices concern proactive influence between employees in regard to enthusiasm, employees communicating the good in others, and employees showing tolerance when mistakes are made, with the suggestion that a positive work environment can form from such behaviors. Regressing the positive practice of inspiration on social climate (overall model, r = .722, R2 = .521, F [3,143] = 50.788, p ≤ .001) showed the effect of specific behaviors on climate, namely how employees communicate the good they see in each other (β = .292), and how they display confidence in each other (β = .444), suggesting that confidence between employees based on mutual respect and value for one another, including mutual affirmation and encouragement in work performance, is key in a positive work environment (statistics not shown in table). The multiple regression analysis of positive practices and task performance showed respect to be a primary predictor of performance among the six behaviors (β = .470). Regressing the respect dimension of positive practices on task performance (overall model, r = .752, R2 = .543, F [7,143] = 25.266, p ≤ .001) showed primary contribution through employee trust (β = .280), employee confidence (β = .246), and employee respect (β = .237). This suggests that when employees trust, have confidence in, and respect for one other, there is a direct effect on task performance. In an intensive service climate atmosphere, emotional support and care may not be as critical as team members respecting and trusting each other in their work tasks, including acts that demonstrate gratitude, appreciation, and confidence.

Practical IMplications

Meaningful work has to do with work being purposeful and significant (Pratt & Ashforth, 2003). In an intensive and often routinized café food preparation and service context, it can be challenging for team members to discover factors that contribute to meaningfulness of work, such as autonomy and freedom, personal development and self-expression, and growth and goal-fulfillment (Cardador & Rupp, 2011). However, as noted by Kahn (1990), finding psychological meaning in work goes beyond the task itself, but incorporates “rewarding interpersonal relationships with coworkers and clients” that promote “dignity, self-appreciation, and a sense of worthwhileness” (p.

707), as well as members sensing psychological safety through relational interactions that are “supportive and trusting” (p. 708). Employees want to feel they are both valuable and valued, which involves mutual appreciation and respect, and employees want to feel that they can express themselves without fear of negative consequences—a key to employees fully immersing themselves in their work (Rothbard & Patil, 2011).

The results of the study confirm that in an intensive task environment, team members can mutually inspire each other and promote meaningfulness in work by respecting, trusting, expressing confidence in, and communicating the good they see in each other, which promotes team member dignity and sense of worth. The extra energy, persistence, and dedication that engaged employees invest in their work can be shared and transferred between team members during task accomplishment (Salanova et al., 2005; Torrente, Salanova, & Llorens, 2013). In the current context of study, team managers at Urbane Café work closely with team members to coordinate and encourage their efforts, while often participating in food preparation and customer service. The findings of the study suggest the importance of managerial involvement in how team members can influence each other toward greater work engagement through processes of mutual inspiration. Such processes generally involve the sharing of emotions (emotional contagion or positive affect) through mutual empathy between members. The positivity of a leader can have a dramatic effect on employees, significantly influencing their attitudes and performance, since employees can sense the emotions of their manager or supervisor (Barsade, 2002). Managers can foster a positive work environment by modeling for team members how to think and feel more positive, thus being positive energizers who “benefit their organizations by enabling others around them to perform better” (Cameron, 2010, p. 49). The implementation of strategic management practices in teams could enhance positivity at work and inspire meaningful work engagement (Cabrera, 2012):

  • Managers can inspire team members to focus on the good by celebrating wins, pointing out team member strengths and accomplishments, telling success stories, and encouraging the search for solutions rather than dwelling on problems.
  • Managers can motivate team members toward optimistic thinking and how to reinterpret challenges as opportunities to dispel or dispute pessimistic thoughts and engage in positive forward-thinking.
  • Managers can facilitate a culture of gratitude and appreciation in work teams, leading team members in recognizing and valuing each other for their contributions, identifying strengths, expressing thankfulness for accomplishments, and engendering virtuous cycles of honor.
  • Managers can encourage and model forgiveness for mistakes by giving latitude for miss-steps, engendering a safe psychological climate, and viewing mistakes as opportunities for learning.
  • Managers can demonstrate respect by asking for ideas and opinions by listening to what team members have to say, both valuing their input and trusting their abilities.
  • Managers can help team members identify and utilize their strengths and grant them increased autonomy in decisions and responsibilities, thus enhancing energy and flow in work tasks.
  • Managers can show genuine concern for the health and well-being of team members by helping them to enjoy their work, for high quality relational exchanges in teams include members having fun, being comfortable, relaxed, and satisfied, experiencing enjoyment and enthusiasm, and liking their work (Tse & Dasborough, 2008).

Conclusion

This research study constitutes a finer-grained analysis of positive virtuous practices in the workplace and their relation to organizational climate and the outcomes of work engagement and task performance. How specific virtuous behaviors relate to the formation of a positive work environment and the resultant effect on workers is strategic, for it is necessary in today’s competitive markets that workplaces pursue exceptional performance at all levels. Organizations that provide customer service face a highly competitive environment, putting much onus on the nature and quality of services provided to customers. A service climate is a “collective and shared phenomenon” that involves both employee and customer perceptions, and thus, positive experiences for both employees and customers are paramount (Salanova et al., 2005, p. 1217). Schneider, Bowen, Ehrhart, and Holcombe (2000) demonstrated that a positive service climate for workers engenders behaviors toward customers that are also positive, resulting in positive customer reports on service quality, which, in turn, leads to greater profits. The current study demonstrates the importance of team members

discovering meaning in their work through interaction with other members, involving mutual trust, respect, and confidence, where team members believe the best in each other and are tolerate of their mistakes, thus inspiring and charging each other in their performance. In this manner, positive employee behaviors can enhance both climate and performance.

Limitations in the study include the focus on a single gourmet sandwich and salad restaurant chain, and the use of an instrument for positive practices that was described as “blunt” (Cameron et al., 2012, p. 292), since it produces aggregated ratings (based on it involving perceptions of the organization, or in this case a café work team). This study constitutes the first use of the positive practice dimensions as a single instrument for hypotheses testing. Possibly the present study has sharpened the instrument and demonstrated more intricate linkage between positive behaviors and worker outcomes.

Future study is needed to show valid and consistent results for the positive practices scale dimensions. A confirmatory factor analysis is needed to demonstrate that the six positive practice dimensions constitute a higher order variable. More research linking positive practices to attitudinal (e.g., organizational citizenship behavior), attachment related (e.g., organizational commitment or intent to leave), and achievement-oriented (e.g., production and profitability) outcomes are needed to show the viability and practicality of the positive practices instrument. Further study could help delineate positivity in regards to its cognitive, emotive, and volitional aspects, and elucidate how positivity enacted through employee attitudes and actions comprises both psychological resources and relational behaviors, including mechanisms for how positivity in employees engenders both a positive work environment and positive organization.

About the Author

Perry Geue is a fourth-year Ph.D. student at Regent University, where he is studying organizational leadership. He is an administrator at Ventura County Christian School in Ventura, CA, and holds a Doctor of Ministry from Fuller Seminary. Correspondence concerning this article should be addressed to Perry Geue at perrgeu@mail.regent.edu.

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A Review of Autocratic, Paternalistic, and Charismatic Leadership in Three Collectivist Cultures

The conception of culture serves as a primary issue within both organization and leadership research. Examination of organizational leadership and culture provides researchers with comprehensive tools to better understand effective leadership within an increasingly globalized organizational context. Amidst the broad spectrum of leadership theory are the subsequent conceptions of three leadership theories: (a) autocratic leadership, (b) paternalistic leadership, (c) charismatic leadership. A deeper understanding of organizational leadership and its varied application and effectiveness requires fastidious consideration of the social, cultural and in some cases religious contexts in which leadership exists. The three selected theories are placed against the cultural contextual framework of Confucian Asia (China), Sub-Saharan Africa, and Latin America (Mexico) as representatives of many cultural dimensions identified within the GLOBE study. Therefore, the primary objective of this investigation is to review the development of specific leadership theories and cross-cultural values informed by their application or prevalence within three selected collectivist regions. Ultimately, the research findings support the contentions of some scholars, that while the nexus of organizational leadership theories should be cross-culturally static, the reality of shifting ideals relative to interface with a diverse global marketplace, presents differing behaviors across cultures and in some cases within regional cultural clusters.

The definition of leadership requires not just theoretical support, but also a thorough understanding of the existing relationship(s) between leaders and their respective groups, along with the varied levels of meaning and value that are intrinsic to one’s identification as a leader within a given contextual framework. Further, the intersection of leadership and organizational culture is a daunting endeavor, since both frameworks host an immense amount of differing and diverse concepts and viewpoints. Alvesson (2002) purported that, for leadership researchers, it is challenging to construct a precise categorization based on a prescribed order or language as there are many hindrances to identifying an agreed “meaning through definitions” (p. 94). The diverse collection of defining themes within leadership mirrors in both depth and scope the various cultural definitions within organizations. Yukl (1989) explained that the many proposed defining characteristics of leadership have very little in common with the exception of the influence process. Additionally, the scholar contended that leadership influences “task objectives and strategies… commitment and compliance in task behavior to achieve objectives… group maintenance … identification and… the culture of an organization (Yukl, 1989, p. 253). Schein (2004) suggested that perhaps the single important task of leadership within an organization is to “create and manage culture… and destroy culture when it is viewed as dysfunctional (p. 11). The goal, for most leadership researchers, is to identify the connecting threads with measurable and effective leadership models, which are replicable. The amalgamation of efforts to encapsulate the variety of different variables relative to alternative leadership styles such as democratic and autocratic, laissez-faire and paternalistic or transactional and transformational are informative categorizations but may be too general to provide a detailed purview into the existing (or emerging) cultural variations.

Culture is a significant theme within organizational theory and academic research relative to leadership, business, and management. Kunda (2006) explained that within organizational frameworks, “culture is generally viewed as shared rules governing cognitive and affective aspects of membership in an organization, and the means whereby they are shaped and expressed” (p. 8). As such, culture provides the primary governance within an organization for understanding and measuring responses to events, behavior, processes, and institutions (Bryman, Collinson, Grint, Jackson, & Uhl- Bien, 2011, p. 153). Identifying cultural phenomena allows researchers to begin to understand, identify, and associate varied meanings to identified interactions across many levels of a given organization, group, or region. Historically, culture’s conception among scholars is a point of contention, narrowly avoided within leadership studies (until the last 15 years) and its definition increasingly broadened by a growing list of scholars and practitioners (Bryman et al., 2011; Cameron & Quinn, 2011; Chhokar, Brodbeck, & House, 2013; Deal & Kennedy, 1999; Hofstede, 1980, 1994, 2001; House & Javidan, 2004; House, Hanges, Javidan, Dorfman, & Gupta, 2004; Moodian, 2008, 2013; Trice & Beyer, 1993).

Scholars noted that much of the business and management literature within the past few decades pointed to organizational culture being wholly determined and governed through senior management (Bryman et al., 2011). As such, the success or determined failure of an organization rested solely within a uniform expression of culture embodied and housed within the top tier of an organization, community, or nation- state. The importance of this distinction resides in the agreement among researchers that within culture, there is a cognitive methodology which determines the thinking, reasoning, and decision-making of a particular group of people. Additionally, when cultures are able to shift as a direct result of leadership’s governance and control, the total impact on the affected group of people is both far-reaching and comprehensive.

Leadershsip and World Cultures

Leadership research, within the past three decades, is uniquely analyzed among and within a myriad of social science studies as an interpersonal process of influence and governance found in almost every aspect of human civilization. Building on the foundational work of Hofstede (1980, 2001) on the dimensions of culture, House et al. (2004) identified within the Global Leadership & Organizational Behavior Effectiveness (GLOBE) project, a collection of 62 countries categorized into regional culture clusters analyzed across an expanded grouping of nine cultural dimensions including: (a) assertiveness orientation; (b) future orientation, (c) gender egalitarianism, (d) humane orientation, (e) in-group collectivism, (f) institutional collectivism, (g) performance orientation, (h) power distance, (i) uncertainty avoidance. Characterization, prevalence, and application of each of these cultural dimensions as exhibited, accepted or rejected by a particular region, signified by a high or low score for each, are reflected in the study’s findings (House et al., 2004; House & Javidan, 2004).

Within this writing is an examination of the selected leadership applications (albeit positive or negative) within China, Sub-Saharan Africa (SSA) and Mexico about the intersections of these global cultures and leadership. As such, the inclusion of brief summaries with available research regarding both cultural conceptions and praxis are examined within three specific leadership styles: (a) autocratic, (b) paternal, and (c) charismatic. Taking a closer look at leadership within each of these regional cultural contexts, from a general perspective, further illustrates the importance of cultural consideration among global organizations as the communities, organizations, and groups within each of these contexts view leadership in diverse ways. Many scholars purported the existence of a strong correlation between collectivism (as represented in the selected regions) and leadership styles and performance (Agarwal, DeCarlo, & Vyas, 1999; House, Wright, & Aditya, 1997; Walumbwa & Lawler, 2003). This examination is in no way an exhaustive reflection of the multifarious levels of context, regional variance, sub-cultural, and emerging changes within the selected cultural and contextual frameworks, instead, it is an overview of applicable findings to date of the selected leadership topics and regions.

Cross-Cultural Applications of Autocratic Leadership

Lewin, Lippitt, and White (1939) and Lippitt (1940) presented the first theoretical construction of autocratic leadership (AL). An AL style is the exhibition of controlling behavior that centralizes both power and decision-making, with unilateral governance and little to no follower input or consideration. (De Hoogh & Den Hartog, 2009; De Luque, Washburn, Waldman, & House, 2008; Foels, Driskell, Mullen, & Salas, 2000; Sauer, 2011). The foundation and exhibition of autocratic power originates in the leader’s position within the organization, coupled with a controlling decision procedure specifically concerning organization process assets, resources, information, physical location, rewards and punishments (Yukl, 2013;Yukl & Falbe, 1991). Accordingly, scholars (De Hoogh, Greer, & Den Hartog, 2009) defined a leader employing a high AL practice, as exercising a controlling and directive leadership model, which engages subordinates or followers according to an established hierarchical structure and “interact… in a directive manner” (p. 689). By contrast, those exhibiting low autocratic behavior, exercised a democratic decision-making process that demonstrated an engaging and “power-sharing” leadership model (De Hoogh, Greer, & Den Hartog, 2015; Srivastava, Bartol, & Locke, 2006; Schoel, Bluemke, Mueller, & Stahlberg, 2011; Yukl, 2013). Contributions by Bass and Bass (2009) introduce connections between AL and the passivity found in laissez-faire styles, reflecting an aversion in assuming responsibility for outcomes, decisions or general authority, adding additional research to the contrasting findings associated with the exhibition of AL globally. Historically, the emergence or decline of AL among national or organizational contexts reflect the state of their respective economic, political, or social climates.

Researchers contributing to the diverse findings and application of AL globally highlight the positive and negative effects of AL, depending on the cultural application. As such, Dickson, Den Hartog, and Mitchelson (2003) posited that AL’s positive results were largely contingent upon its general acceptance within organizations, regions, or group cultures that align with the style. This contention finds support from scholars reporting a strong correlation between AL and an elimination of uncertainty and insecurity among followers who find solace in the direction, clarity and structure represented by this style (Cooper & Withey, 2009; Foels et al., 2000; Halevy, Chou, & Galinsky, 2011; Keltner, Van Kleef, Chen, & Kraus, 2008; Ronay, Greenaway, Anicich, & Galinsky, 2012). Coupled with this is the scriptural account of the leadership of Jesus and his disciples, as West (2018b) explained that within the New Testament account there is no narrative describing his asking for His disciples’ inputs in the decisions He made, including the decisions that directly affected them.” (para. 1).

Biblical representation included autocratic leaders who often embody the “get it done” mentality of a strong leader, and seem to cut through the gridlock of established democratic processes or any potential immobility resident in opposing factions; with a methodology that often restricts liberty and is void external inputs (Harms, Wood, Landay, Lester, & Vogelgesang Lester, 2018). Scholars support this assertion by pointing to the strong correlation between effective leadership and a directive style of management within groups (DeRue, Nahrgang, Wellman, & Humphrey, 2011). Consequently, researchers composing a listing of toxic and adverse leadership methodologies elected not to include AL (Krasikova, Green, & LeBreton; Schyns & Schilling, 2013). Conversely, Gabriel (2011) reported that there is a connection between organizational failure and AL which is reflective in its decline over time. This view is supported by scholars who found that AL presented high correlation to toxic leadership, abuse of power, dictatorial governance or diverged from more positive styles (Bass & Bass, 2009; De Hoogh & Den Hartog, 2009; Huang, Xu, Chiu, Lam, & Farh, 2015). Fiedler’s (1964) work explained that these diametrically opposed findings about AL’s conception, development, and praxis, are “influenced by the pre-existing biases of researchers… to support the theoretical orientation of the individuals conducting the research” (as cited in Harms et al., 2018, p. 114). While the application and reception of AL spans a broad spectrum, there seems to be agreement that these leaders take full responsibility for all decisions and the performance, success, or failure of their respective team, region, or organization (Pellegrini & Scandura, 2008).

Within a high AL model, any divergences from the expressed leader’s vision for the organization or nation-state, are pushed to the periphery as the expectation is conformity of process and performance in support of the collective goal (Bryman et al., 2011). Additionally, Hogg (2007) purported that within autocratic and hierarchical leadership there is a tendency to view any level of follower criticism as a corporate threat, which prompts responses reflecting both exploitation and punitive punishments (p. 49). Confounding the vast effectiveness of this model is the leader’s inability or outright unwillingness to accept feedback or input, which prompts a potentially uninformed decision-making praxis that produces poor decisions and unmet corporate goals (Tourish & Robson, 2006). An organization’s endorsement and support of this type of oneness of thought and praxis promote the type of cognitive dissonance reflected in Festinger’s (1957, 1962) work, which explained the kind of contradictions present in belief and experience that promote immobility, lack of resolution and intense loyalty to growing fallacies.

Within differing organizations, regions, or cultures, the reception and perception of leadership along with the normative behavior and ideals of that leader are heterogeneous. The degree of impact resident within a given culture guides and provides structure for a leader, as most effective leadership applications reflect, embody, and operate based on the acceptable standards of their respective organizational culture. (Bryman et al., 2011, p. 159).

Confucian Asia (China) Cultural Cluster & Autocratic Leadership (AL)

Scholars explained that the broad purview of the world into the People’s Republic of China has dramatically impacted the global social, economic and cultural landscape (Fu, Wu, & Jun Ye, 2013; Tsui & Lau, 2002). Within this examination is a truncated review of the GLOBE data on Chinese culture and leadership as a large portion of the Confucian Asia regional cultural cluster. This cultural cluster as identified in the 2004 GLOBE study includes: (a) Singapore, (b) Hong Kong, (c) Taiwan, (d) China, (e) South Korea, and (f) Japan (House et al., 2004; Northouse, 2016, p. 437). Driven by their rich history linked directly to Confucianism, much of the Chinese cultural landscape, its leadership preferences, and praxis govern its ideologies, traditions, and lifestyle. Fu et al. (2013) noted its influence centuries ago, having laid claim to Chinese cultural expressions since the Song Dynasty (960-1126), as Confucianism itself means “Chinese traditional culture” (p. 878). Confucianism rests on adherence to “five constant virtues: benevolence, righteousness, propriety, wisdom, and fidelity” which each work concurrently to uphold the ancient traditions, hierarchy and rituals of China’s established imperial rule (Farh & Cheng, 2000, p. 103). Additionally, Confucius expressed that an individual’s social standing was fixed according to birth, further supporting a patriarchal method of societal organization (Fu et al., 2013, p. 879). This centuries-old establishment of societal order is reflective in the GLOBE findings relative to Confucian Asia, which reflected a high correlation between this region and “performance orientation, institutional collectivism, and in-group collectivism” (House et al., 2004; Northouse, 2016, p. 437).

Performance Orientation

Introduced by McClelland’s (1961) research on achievement needs, the performance orientation dimension, within the GLOBE study, utilized a “closed-end questionnaire” to generate its findings (House et al., 2004, p. 13). Within this cultural dimension is the degree to which societies or organizations promote and incentivize followers or subordinates based on the improvements in performance or excellence benefitting the collective (House et al., 2004). A firm expectation of teamwork, active participation, and support of collective rather than individual ambitions, informs the cultural leadership and follower praxis in China. As such, the protection and preservation of traditions, social hierarchy, personal and spiritual beliefs are paramount, bolstering China’s high rank within the performance orientation dimension (Hanges, Dickson, & Sipe, 2004;House et al., 2004; House, Javidan, Hanges, & Dorfman, 2002). Additionally, scholars note that success is intrinsic to their cultural framework and as a collectivist society, do not place additional emphasis on individual performance (Fu et al., 2013, p. 888).

Institutional Collectivism

This cultural dimension reveals the measure at which integration and cohesiveness is cultivated by a given society’s institutions, organizations, communities, or families.

Additionally, institutional collectivism illustrates the degree to which centralized governance places emphasis on a collective goal and requires compliance and loyalty with maintenance of an established way of life being paramount (House et al., 2004; Northouse, 2016; Yukl, 2013 ) For the less malevolent motivations of AL, the Chinese high correlation (#7 out of 61 countries) within institutional collectivism, may find success as best reflected in some of the established societal motivations within traditionalist Chinese society, who may embody an authoritarian followership model (Fu et al., 2013; Harms et al., 2018; House et al., 2004; Northouse, 2016, p. 437). Scholars suggested that within the last decade there has been a push for more egalitarian and equitable standards across the board, which is beginning to leave room for the acknowledgment of individual inputs and personal recognition for leader contributions (Chen, 1995; Fu et al., 2013).

IN-GROUP COLLECTIVISM

Within this dimension is the estimated level of a culture’s collective sense of belonging, loyalty, sense of self, and pride. In-group collectivism is further reflected in the level of devotion to the whole, with membership, affiliation and family being chief concerns (House et al., 2004; Northouse, 2016; Yukl, 2013). As such any exhibition of AL which pursues personal interests at the risk of the familial community, organization, or the group, could violate Chinese loyalist motivations actively supporting families, bosses, and leadership (Fu et al., 2013). Akin to the societal development affecting other cultural dimensions, scholars report a recent shifting reflecting “Chinese-style” individualism, within younger Chinese inhabitants who maintain traditions, while growing professionally “more compatible with Western values” (Ralston, Egri, Stewart, Terpstra, & Kaicheng, 1999, p. 415). Even in view of a slowly expanding sense of individualism, reflected in the release of some of the restraints from familial sacrificial devotion and professional loyalty, the effective application of AL within this general contextual framework is challenging.

Research suggests leadership within the Confucian Asia cultural cluster, dedicated to their traditions, families, and nation, are team oriented, humane oriented and self- protective (House et al., 2004; Northouse, 2016, p. 437). AL is prone to independent inspiration, decision-making, and prefers to work independently to the exclusion of outside input, which is contrary to these findings revealed in the GLOBE study. Research findings identified the (Confucian Asia) Chinese profile of leadership as individuals who are caring and motivated by the welfare of the sum over and above its parts, utilizing social status and hierarchy to lead independently “without the input of others” (House et al., 2004; Northouse, 2016, p. 443).

CONFUCIAN ASIA (CHINA) LEADERSHIP

Cross-cultural research of China reflects adherence to tradition and nationalism amidst the continually growing influence of Western ideas about business and management. While there are vast and multiple cultural values at play within the expanse of this Republic, the execution of typical autocratic praxis is, in large part, mutually incompatible with an effective leadership model predicated on the reach and governance of the Chinese Communist Party and communal ideologies (Chen, 1995; Fu et al., 2013, p. 886; Ralston et al., 1999).

Jackson, Louw, and Zhao (2013) examined the growing international and cross-cultural relationship between China and Africa within the last five years. Scholars identify three themes which precipitated this new geopolitically diverse connection, namely, (a) trade and economic development, (b) foreign direct investment (FDI), and (c) by request of the receiving country (Biggeri & Sanfilippo, 2009 as cited in Jackson et al., 2013, p. 2512). While there are places within the aforementioned cultural dimensions of convergence (collectivism) between the two regions, there are also places of divergence (humane orientation) which may be a point of contention for African followers of Chinese leadership within this cross-cultural connection.

SUB-SAHARAN AFRICA (SSA) CULTURAL CLUSTER & AUTOCRATIC LEADERSHIP (AL)

The SSA is the second-largest continent comprised of more than 50 countries, an innumerable amount of spoken languages, and an equally large distribution of cultural expressions, tribes, and creeds. Researchers explain that among the many ethnic and tribal groups, a large part of the region is made up of related egalitarian, hunter- gatherer, and agrarian groups known as the Bantu (Wanasika, Howell, Littrell, & Dorfman, 2011, p. 234). Historically, the Bantu and other foundational societies within the region established a firm cultural backdrop firmly anchored in hierarchically organized populations, governed by royalty and classified according to economic status and ownership. This established way of life, passed down through generations was unexpectedly disrupted with the introduction of colonialism and slave trading practices of the 1800s, introducing a “pattern of conquest” mainly recognized as the three C’s: (a) Christianity, (b) Commerce, and (c) Civilization (Nkomazana, 1998; Wanasika et al., 2011). This shift in governance from established tribal leadership to British colonial governance introduced the organization of political unions, racially discriminatory practices including seclusion, confinement and an “inability to own property” (Wanasika et al., 2011, p. 235). Scholars explained that this set the stage for a firm distrust among the SSA’s general populace of both “organizational and political leaders as well as low personal aspiration and feelings of helplessness resulting in tolerance of corruption, nepotism, and … acts of violence” (Dorfman, Javidan, Hanges, Dastmalchian, & House, 2012, p. 510). Moreover, these researchers explained that the history, experience and cultural construct within the SSA, set the stage for the influence and emergence of the “African Strong Man who imposes his will on populations” (Dorfman et al., 2012, p. 510). Toulassi, West, Winston, and Wood (2016) supported this assertion of male dominance within SSA, noting a generational stream of traditional father to son leadership successions preserving power within royal bloodlines (pp. 42- 43). Toulassi, (2015) however, purported that in recent years, “leadership is open to youth… and a substantial growing female leadership with a special focus on female development and emancipation” being prevalent (p. 5).

Additionally, a bifurcated method of leadership reflecting colonialism’s remnants of fair-skinned ownership and resource management concurrent with subversive yet powerful governance by tribal-chiefs with a differing set of values and ideals are all at work within this region. Each of these representations of effective leadership within the SSA competes for dominance and cause conflicts for researchers, global alliances, and political figures impeding their collective ability to make broad sweeping generalizations (about process or expectations) as evidenced by South Africa’s binary (individualistic and communalistic orientations) cultural dimension scores in the GLOBE study findings indicates sharp disparities (by race) in the region (Avolio, 1995; House et al., 2004).

Similar to the Confucian Asia cluster, the Sub Saharan cluster also realized high levels of In-Group Collectivism, although as previously described; there are apparent deviations in method, motivation, and exhibition of their respective practices (Chhokar et al., 2013). This cultural cluster as identified in the 2004 GLOBE study, includes (a) Zimbabwe, (b) Namibia, (c) Zambia, (d) Nigeria, and (e) South Africa (black sample) (House et al., 2004). Within this vast regional culture cluster, polled residents also ranked high in humane orientation. Scholars agreed that among the surveyed nations within the GLOBE study, SSA is a broad region that required additional study to gain a better understanding (Dorfman et al., 2012).

Human Orientation

Among the nine cultural dimensions utilized by the GLOBE study in the identification of culturally endorsed implicit leadership theory dimensions (CLT), is humane orientation. House et al. (2004) list the work of classic Greek philosophers, major world religions, and moral philosophers for the first conceptions of humane orientation. The GLOBE study defined this cultural dimension as the degree to which society, organization, or group that is generous, caring altruistic and kind to others (House et al., 1999; House et al., 2004, p. 569). Dorfman, Hanges, and Brodbeck (2004) purported that within these regions’ cultural and societal values such as concern, tolerance, support of family, and friendships are paramount.

Scholars agreed that in SSA, the population strongly conveyed high levels of care, concern, and sensitivity to others (Antonakis, & Atwater, 2002; Booysen & van Wyk, 2013; Chhokar et al., 2013; House et al., 2004; Jackson, 2012; Mbigi, 1995; Northouse, 2016; Wanasika et al., 2011). A diminished sense of self-protection expresses this concern in favor of protecting family bonds and the shared responsibility of protecting weaker performers within the group (Booysen & van Wyk, 2013; Chhokar et al., 2013; Khoza, 1994; Northouse, 2016). Motivation for SSA enterprises “affirm more and build employees’ self-esteem,” which emphasizes the intrinsic value of people over skill sets (Booysen & van Wyk, 2013; p. 468).

In-Group Collectivism

Mbigi (1995) suggested that the shared code of belief among Africans regarding solidarity and the collective community support the region’s high marks for In-Group Collectivism. The historically grounded necessity for residents is “to find their place in a societal structure” (Booysen & van Wyk, 2013, p. 468). The indigenous African philosophies, communal governance, and strict adherence of elders to the hierarchical and patriarchal order fuel the high levels of collectivism within this cultural cluster.

Sub Saharan Africa’s Leadership

For the 53 countries in SSA, the effective leader acknowledges both emerging and indigenous African principles, reflecting modesty, sincere concern, and team- orientation. Individuals who act alone, are self-determinant, self-appointed, or self- endorsed, may be deemed ineffective within the vast majority of SSA organizational applications. Additionally, this oft-confounding cultural cluster (among others) “only slightly endorse(d)” the participative leadership dimension positively (Chhokar et al., 2013, p.1040). Researchers further reported that leaders who choose to act alone are received poorly by followers, and instead, should inspire, improve others, and be communal for positive follower response (Booysen & van Wyk, 2013; House et al., 2004; Northouse, 2016, p. 445).

This emphasis on collective solidarity is reflective of Ubuntu (humane interactions) among inhabitants of SSA, who often do not support the AL model of isolated decision- making as the research suggests inhabitants, value “inclusivity, collaboration consensus and group significance” (Booysen & van Wyk, 2013, p. 470; Mangaliso, 2001; Mbigi & Maree, 1995). Within this region, leadership effectiveness is linked directly with care for others, which is a primary component not often connected to the general conception, praxis, or organizational exhibition of autocratic (non-participative) leadership.

Latin America (Mexico) Cultural Cluster & Autocratic Leadership (AL)

Within the next section, is a presentation of principal research findings from a third and final region listed among countries that comprised the Latin America cultural cluster within prevalent cross-cultural studies. This cultural cluster as identified in the 2004 GLOBE study includes: (a) Ecuador, (b) El Salvador, (c) Colombia, (d) Bolivia, (e) Brazil, (f) Guatemala, (g) Argentina, (h) Costa Rica, (i) Venezuela, and (j) Mexico (House et al., 2004; Howell et al., 2013; Northouse, 2016, p. 438).

Among a list of unique and solidifying characteristics of Mexican culture, scholars list a shared language, Spanish/Indian heritage (mestizo) and faith (predominantly Catholic with some Protestant regions) (Howell et al., 2013). With more than five centuries of history, this country has mostly shifted its societal pattern and cultural behaviors over time, from a largely indigenous population, through Spanish conquest and colonization, gaining independence and employing contemporary innovations in economic and political methodologies positioning themselves for profitable international partnerships (Howell et al., 2013, pp. 725-730). Illustrating the steep demographic, societal, and population changes in Mexico is the Instituto Nacional de Estadística y Geografía (INEGI) (2015) report, which listed approximately 40 percent of the population at 25 years of age or younger, with an average age of 27. Researchers explained that the literal and figurative growth and education among young Mexicans fuel the shift in leadership expectations, global interests, and wide-reaching social changes (Howell et al., 2013).

Scholars additionally pointed to the development and emergence of the maquiladora industry among the most important industrial, economic and societal developments of the last four decades (Cañas, Coronado, Gilmer, & Saucedo, 2013; Heid, Larch, & Riaño, 2013; Howell et al., 2013; Pelled & Hill, K. D., 1997; Schuler, Jackson, Jackofsky, & Slocum, 1996; Stephens & Greer, 1995; Teagarden, Butler, & Von Glinow, 1992; Varas & Johnson, 1993). In 1993, the North America Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA) opened the floodgates for increased cross-border trading and international partnerships, sparking stronger economic integration with North America (Ramos-Francia & Chiquiar, 2005). By 2001, China joined the World Trade Organization (WTO) “increasing global low- wage competition,” which forced Mexico to restructure its large maquiladora industry (Cañas et al., 2013, p. 416). Even with the threat of new low-cost competition from the East, Mexico’s export manufacturing industry increased between 2001-2006 (Cañas et al., 2013). This Mexican history of growth, change, and evolution reflects the praxis and perception of effective leadership within the nation.

Mexico’s historical evolution, within its society, reflected strict adherence to an established value system, which has strongly influenced the Mexican conception of leadership in government, business, social hierarchy, and other communities nationally. Pulling from the list of values within the GLOBE study, Mexico scored high in (a) Traditionalism (b) Assertiveness, (c) In-Group Collectivism, and (d) Power Distance (Cañas et al., 2013; House et al., 2004; Howell et al., 2013).

Traditionalism

Hofstede, (2001) pointed to both traditionalism within the uncertainty avoidance dimension of national culture, is often associated with “intolerance of differing opinions, inflexibility, dogmatism… and prejudice are associated with the norm for intolerance for ambiguity” (p.146; House et al., 2004, p.607). As such traditionalist societies exhibit low uncertainty avoidance and according to Cyert and March’s (1963) research, Mexico’s leaning toward established rules or order and societal rituals and regulations. As such, the national exhibition of this cultural dimension of uncertainty avoidance as reflected in traditionalism (like China), is primarily linked to strict adherence to long-term group, organizational or religious practices (House et al., 2004; Zhao, 2000) Additionally, Mexico’s traditionalism “emphasize(d) family, class, reverence for the past and ascribed status” (Howell et al., 2013, p. 733).

This dimension can be measured and analyzed at both the individual and societal levels. As previously stated Hofstede’s (1980, 2001) cultural values and perceptions of Latin America (incl. Mexico) revealed exhibition of high traditionalism and collectivism. Researchers identified links to Mexican leadership models from a multidimensional perspective of the cultural values with both traditionalist and collectivist practices (Bass & Stogdill, 1990; Cañas et al., 2013; Davis, Ming, & Brosnan, 1986; Farh, Earley, & Lin, 1997; Howell et al., 2013). Among the polled regions with high traditionalism scores, researchers found these communities exceeded those with low traditionalism marks that rarely “base their attitudes and behavioral responses on how authority figures treat them” (Farh, Hackett, & Liang, 2007, p.717). Instead, high traditionalists, held a strong sense of obligation to meet the established expectation, duties and responsibilities of the station, status, or obligations which fulfill the expectations and duties linked to their prearranged social status (Farh et al., 2007; Farh, Leong, & Law, 1998; Howell et al., 2013; Hui, Lee, & Rousseau, 2004; Spreitzer, Perttula, & Xin, 2005). Within available empirical literature, there is little emphasis in research findings (specific to Mexico outside of the Latin America cultural cluster scores) with contemporary data about the influence of specifically Mexican traditional culture. As an exception, Howell et al. (2013) explained that a defined class structure, traditional gender roles, and strong familial ties, point to the Mexican values “that continue to be evident within the workplace” which often conflict with more modern cosmopolitan values” within organizations (p. 733).

Assertiveness

Contrary to a biblical preference for the inherited benefits and aspirational pursuit of meekness, is the more prevalent societal contention of strength and assertiveness (Mt. 5:5, ESV). The assertiveness dimension represents the degree to which individuals, communities or organizations within a region are determined, “assertive, confrontational, and aggressive in their social relationships” (Northouse, 2016, p. 433). Additionally, researchers list confrontation among characteristics within this dimension, indicating a degree of expected dominance, tenacity, and toughness within leadership in this region (Howell et al., 2013). Leaders within regions ranked high in the assertiveness dimension, exhibit behavior reflecting direct communication, aggression, toughness and “confrontational debate” (Northouse, 2016, p. 433).

Mexico’s high score within the GLOBE study also reflects this culture’s positive strong male orientation (machismo) further emphasizing the stronghold both tradition, gender roles and social hierarchy and status play within Mexican respondents (Hofstede, 1980, 1994, 2001; House et al., 2004; Howell et al., 2013). Moreover, Hofstede, (1980, 1994, 2001) pointed to regions with high assertiveness scores, additional correlated dominance with masculinity along with confrontation, directness and straight-forward communication with others in work settings (House et al., 2004; Northouse, 2016, p. 433) These findings further support Mexico’s high scores for In-Group Collectivism and lesser, provide some foundation for the mid-range scores for institutional collectivism in the region.

In-Group Collectivism

Howell et al. (2013) reported Mexico as the “highest of three groups on the all country distribution” for In-Group Collectivism. This dimension is additionally exhibited in Mexico’s expression of loyalty, pride, strong family ties, and cohesiveness within organizations (House et al., 2004). The expansive personal and familiar networks of close friends and extended family serves as the groundwork for this society’s strong ties and supportive initiatives revealing fierce loyalty, care, and communal expectation. Scholars explained that these extended families are the primary method for the maintenance of traditions, customs, and resources across generations (Diaz-Loving & Draguns, 1999). Concurrent to this, researchers identify Mexican simpatia, which is a custom expressing absolute avoidance of interpersonal conflict within social circles (Diaz-Loving & Draguns, 1999). This conception, within the region, serves as an indication of the establishment of agreement based on traditional class, status, or placement within society and organizations relative to centralized power and an unquestioning deference for leadership (McCrae & Terracciano, 2005).

Power Distance

Hofstede (1980) explained that the power distance cultural dimension indicates “the extent to which a society accepts the fact that power in institutions and organizations is distributed unequally” (p.45). House et al., (2004) suggested that power distance within the GLOBE findings reflected a given community’s acceptance, adherence or endorsement of reflections of status, privilege, and power, exhibited in a variety of organizational and societal behaviors (p. 513). Power, within the Mexican context, is primarily desired, expected, respected and practiced by successful (and mostly male) business executives, political leaders (caudillo), and military officers serving as models of strength with glimpses of authoritarian (with only slight resemblance to AL) and largely paternalistic behavior (Drost & Von Glinow, 1998).

Latin America’s (Mexico) Leadership

“The Latin American leadership profile stressed the importance of team-oriented leadership and deemphasizes individualistic leadership” (Northouse, 2016, p. 458). Mexico among others within the Latin America culture cluster, exhibits a strong sense of loyalty, cultural pride, deference with devotion to immediate and extended familial groups and less concern for institutional or societal organizations (House et al., 2004; Howell et al., 2013; Northouse, 2016). Team orientation, self-protective leadership, and autonomous leadership are premium within the Latin American value-based leadership characteristics (House et al., 2004; Howell et al., 2013; Northouse, 2016).

Generally AL is listed among leadership styles which yield negative team performance; however, De Hoogh and Den Hartog (2009) suggested that this leadership style shows “potential functional value for creating order and psychological security within teams” (p. 699). In this way, an AL style (reflecting Mexico’s historical patronage model) coupled with “directive leadership behavior” that streamlines follower’s focus by being explicit about tasking, resource assignments, timelines, and quality standards (Howell et al., 2013, p. 736). Within the Mexican cultural context, leaders embodying high power distance are respected by a loyal followership, especially when linked to an authoritarian and elite status-oriented leadership model (Drost & Von Glinow, 1998; Guitierrez, 1993; Howell et al., 2013; Stephens & Greer, 1995).

Mexico’s long history of authoritarian political and military leadership renders a participative leadership style ineffective within this region’s cultural context (Dorfman et al., 1997; Dorfman & Howell, 1997). On the other hand, recent participation in trade agreements introduced participative leaders behavior methodologies to the Mexican cultural landscape amidst an increasingly globalized industrial market (Howell et al., 2013, p. 736). This emergent participative organizational approach reflecting teamwork and increased levels of leader participation reduces the influence and effectiveness of traditional autocratic and authoritarian leadership styles in this region that are intrinsically linked to a robust familial contextual model of interaction.

Cross-Cultural Applications of Paternalistic Leadership (PL)

The need for substantive cross-cultural research efforts in an ever-expanding global business environment, is reported within the writing and work of many scholars (Aycan, 2006; Chen, Eberly, Chiang, Farh, & Cheng, 2014; Cheng, Chou, & Farh, 2000;Cheng, Chou, Wu, Huang, & Farh, 2004; Dorfman et al., 2012; Farh, Liang, Chou, & Cheng, 2008; Hofstede, 1980, 1994, 2001; House et al., 2004; Jackson, 2016; Pellegrini & Scandura, 2008; Top, Oge, Atan, & Gumus, 2015). While autocratic and authoritarian leadership behavioral models expressed utilization of assertive control and unilateral authority, by contrast, paternalistic benevolent behavior exercised concern for the well- being of subordinates and followers (Pellegrini & Scandura, 2008). Replete with disparity among researchers on the varied definitions submitted, many agreed with Farh and Cheng’s (2000) assessment of PL as “a style that combines strong discipline and authority with fatherly benevolence” (p. 91). Followers and subordinates alike, benefitting from this type of covering and protection, respond with obedient loyalty, and compliant adherence to established processes (Aycan, 2006).

Although divided concerning the application and effectiveness of PL behaviors, researchers revealed evidence that pointed to the prevalence and success of an authoritarian leadership style within the Middle East, Asia and Latin America cultures (Farh et al., 2008; Hooper & Martin, 2008; Jackson, 2011, 2012; Martínez, 2000; Pellegrini & Scandura, 2008; Uhl-Bien, Tierney, Graen, & Wakabayashi, 1990). By contrast, the perception of PL within the Anglo cultural cluster, is generally negative and often referred to as “benevolent dictatorship” (Northouse, 2016, p. 77) or “a hidden and insidious form of discrimination” (Colella, Garcia, Triana, & Riedel, 2005, p. 26 as cited in Pellegrini & Scandura, 2008, p. 567). Uhl-Bien and Maslyn (2005) warned that the one-sided, top-down influence resident within PL is objectionable and should not be employed generally (as cited in Pellegrini, Scandura, & Jayaraman, 2010, p. 392).

Some analysts have attempted to draw subtle distinctions between benevolent and exploitative paternalism (Aycan, 2006). Leadership behavior reflective of a benevolent style engendered loyalty and respect from followers as a result of genuine concern for followers’ interests (Aycan, 2006). Conversely, exploitative leaders viewed follower compliance as the non-negotiable means to achieve organizational goals and generally exercise behavior reflecting nurture and care only toward that end. As such, followers of exploitative leaders exhibit loyalty and show outward expressions of respect as a means of fulfilling immediate needs (Aycan, 2006).

Hofstede (1980) explained that within regions with societies built upon common resources, expectations and obligations, reflective in cooperative societies, an exhibition of paternalism is beneficial. Several studies have postulated complementary and divergent descriptions of PL across regions, periods, and individual and organizational cultures (Aycan, 2006; Farh et al., 2008; Jackson, 2012, 2016; Pellegrini & Scandura, 2008; Uhl-Bien et al., 1990). Jackson (2016) purported that:

a relevant aspect of paternalism is that it is situational, or perhaps more accurately it is relational in the extent to which a leader exhibits (benevolent) paternalistic attitudes and behavior towards subordinates as a function of the relationship between them (p. 4).

As previously stated, paternalism within the breadth and depth of international leadership research and knowledge is limited; as it is viewed negatively by much of the Western world and within Anglo cultures (Pellegrini et al., 2010). However, scholars note that the increasing research conducted in the selected regions and others points to the effectiveness of paternalistic leadership (Pellegrini & Scandura, 2008). Additionally, Sullivan, Mitchell, and Uhl-Bien (2003) explained that within collectivist cultural clusters, the praxis of PL supports the primary motivation within these societies to maintain relationships which reflect loyalty, obligation, and respect. Within the selected sample of collectivist cultures (China, SSA, and Mexico), individuals within the communities, tribes, and organizations are often unified into interconnected, cohesive in-groups, which provide for them in exchange for their strict adherence to established codes of conduct and hierarchical social statuses (Aycan, 2006; Hofstede, 1980, 1994, 2001; House et al., 2004; Jackson, 2016; Pellegrini et al., 2010; Sullivan et al., 2003; Wanasika et al., 2011).

Paternalistic Leadership in Confucian Asia (China) Cultural Cluster

Contrary to the Western society’s negative reception of paternalism, Top et al. (2015) explained that this leadership style is “highly accepted by Japanese (Liu, 2014) and Chinese employees (Chen et al., 2014)” (p. 13). Specifically within the Chinese segment of the Confucian Asia culture cluster, is the role paternalistic leaders’ play in motivating followers to achieve success and maintain high performance within teams (Chen et al., 2014). The genuine care of a leader and the followers trust response, within the Chinese application of PL, preserves a culture built on relationships reflecting concern for the well-being of others (Chen et al., 2014; Chen & Kao, 2009; Cheng et al., 2000; Farh & Cheng, 2000).

After reviewing the theoretical development and cross-cultural research of the PL style, Farh and Cheng (2000) concluded that PL synthesizes discipline, authority, fatherly compassion, character, and integrity, within this cultural framework. Beamer (1998) links PL and authoritarian leadership within this cultural cluster, as the established social and economic hierarchy resident in this region produce effective leadership in those who expect obedience from subordinates (or those of a lower station) and who exercise total unquestionable authority and control. Serving as the foundational tri-fold pillar for PL’s praxis within a Chinese framework are: (a) granting favors (shi’en), (b) moral standards (shude), and (c) inspiring fear and respect (liwei) (Cheng et al., 2000).

In China, leaders are expected to show care and concern for followers and even sacrifice themselves for the greater good of the collective group as an extension of their self- discipline and personal virtue (Chen & Shang-Ren Kao, 2009; Farh & Cheng, 2000). Currently, the business and organizational pressure from Western and global philosophies increasingly invade the Chinese landscape and may continue to restructure some of the reception and praxis of participative leadership within Chinese multinational enterprises (Chen, 1995 as cited in Fu et al., 2013, p. 886).

Paternalistic Leadership in Sub-Saharan Africa Cultural Cluster

Analysis of motivation, expectations, and praxis of effective leaders within an increasingly global environment within SSA encompasses both rural and metropolitan expressions of indigenous and multinational industries. Scholars distinguish SSA for its high collectivist, humane-orientation, which the GLOBE study, superficially links to paternalism (House et al., 2004). As previously mentioned, organizational leaders within this culture cluster navigate indigenous and organizational management hierarchy and operate within an often bifurcated hierarchical order of both authority and social governance (Jackson, 2012, 2016).

This bifurcation is generally reflected in differences relative to the function, authority, and economic praxis of men versus women within these countries. SSA’s culture reflects an established history of strong tribal governance, which prefers and venerates male and elderly portions of the population, reflected in the low gender egalitarianism score (House et al., 2004; Wanasika et al., 2011). Akin to the other two regions reviewed in this examination the SSA points to a firm adherence to close-knit family structure, that bases a significant portion of its societal governance and successful leadership philosophy on the preservation of family (ujamaa) Wanasika et al., 2011, p. 238).

Associated within the family hierarchy is a power structure that empowers and protects male dominance within some SSA societies. Although varied across countries within SSA, this gender-based power dynamic is generally reflected in the adoption of a PL model, that insists on providing for followers through clear and unquestioned directives, while retaining absolute responsibility for outcomes. PL’s assume total power along with this responsibility and scholars noted that this often leads to “abuse as is seen in the corruption and violence that characterizes some African administrators” (Wanasika et al., 2011, p. 239). Colella and Garcia (2004) echoed this sentiment and pointed to the potential for organizational discrimination and suggested that within this leadership style is an intrinsic disadvantage for followers (subordinates) (as cited in Pellegrini et al., 2010).

An area of future study, recommended by Jackson (2016) explained the confounding reality of a male-dominated leadership model within SSA, which concurrently fosters a female contingent of informal entrepreneurship fueling “80 percent of (the) gross domestic products in many African countries” serving as the “majority employer” (p. 6). This uniquely balancing reality amidst an established model of male-dominating leadership within organizational and indigenous hierarchical structures, for Jackson, (2016) prompts scholars to begin thinking about a day in which “maternalistic leadership” is a theoretical source of inspiration across social sciences within the context of an ever-changing world (p. 6).

Paternalistic Leadership in Latin America (Mexico) Cultural Cluster

Representative of collective cultures with a strong history of male-dominance and leadership is the Latin America cultural cluster as represented by Mexican businesses and organizations. Concurrent with this, are Hofstede’s (1980) findings which listed Mexico as high in both power-distance and later research (Dorfman et al., 1997; Dorfman & Howell, 1997) that illustrated the Mexican leader’s ”contingent reward behavior… produced high worker commitment to the organization” (Howell et al., 2013, p. 736). These findings mirror Drost and Von Glinow’s (1998) contention that followers within this cultural cluster are often subconsciously aware of the natural social hierarchy, fear conflict, and avoid disagreement with direction from strong PL.

As previously mentioned, Mexico’s high scores in power-distance and performance orientation detailed in the GLOBE culture scales, reflect societal values corresponding

to the expectation for, and embodiment of, a dominant principal leader (caudillo) (Howell et al., 2013; Martínez, 2000). As such, followers expect leadership to embody paternalistic directness as they lead the collective community, organization, or group to success. These expectations mirror the assumption that most children make with parents, guardians, and elders for the provision of needs, instructions, and protection. This theme is reflected in the PL framework within Mexican culture as the extension of In-Group collectivism’s focus on familial connections (Howell et al., 2013). Mexican In- Group collectivism extends across a vast expanse of personal networks which reflect a type of patron-client, interdependence that avoids dependence on civic resources or institutions, focusing on the patriarchal models of authority that mirror the individual’s established dependence on their parents as first modelers of a PL style of governance, control and provision (Howell et al., 2013; Martínez, 2000; Martínez, & Dorfman, 1998). Howell et al. (2013) explained that the “supremacy of the father in Mexican families is replicated in work organizations by patriarchal leadership patterns in family-owned businesses, which are extremely common in Mexico” (p. 759).

Additionally, the development of large, interrelated, Mexican company networks (grupos) covers the Mexican economic landscape as an outgrowth from “strong family ties and traditions” (Howell et al., 2013, p. 759). A large portion of business among Mexican leadership is conducted in and among personal networks filled with individuals who are trusted explicitly; comprised of relatives, friends and close acquaintances (Howell et al., 2013; Martínez, 2000; Martínez & Dorfman, 1998). Congenial, positive, and sensitive interpersonal interactions are paramount within this regional cultural cluster’s view of an effective Mexican leadership model.

Cross-Cultural Applications of Charismatic Leadership (CL)

Inspired by the ancient Greek definition for charismata, which means ‘gift,’ researchers began linking what once was reserved as the moniker for Divinely chosen individuals endowed with extraordinary healing, prophetic, or strength (Conger & Kanungo, 1994). Additionally, Weber’s (1947) identification of ‘charisma’ as the descriptive moniker used to define characteristics observed in military, religious, and political leaders, serves as the springboard from which CL derives. Picking up steam in the late 19th century, scholars who continued to define the behavior and link the characteristics to this style, purported that within organizational contexts, CL grows out of crisis and inspires, motivates, and enlivens followers (Barbuto, 2005; Bass, 1985; Bass & Avolio, 1993; Bryman, 1992; Burns, 1978; Conger & Kanungo, 1987, 1994, 1998; Howell & Higgins, 1990; Roberts, 1985; Tichy & Sherman, 1993; Trice & Beyer, 1991; Yukl, 1989, 2013).

Scholars distinguished charismatic leaders by their conception of future-oriented strategies that are developed and disseminated in an inspirational fashion for followers (Lian, Brown, Tanzer, & Che, 2011). Conger and Kanungo (1987) explained that CL embodies exemplary behavior that may require outstanding personal sacrifice, risk, and the demonstration of unconventional or innovative ways to achieve an organizational goal or vision. Reformation is often a focus for a charismatic leader, and they engender the support and trust of followers in the formulation of a new and determinable path to success. Conversely, Den Hartog et al. (1999) purported that “charismatic leadership might have a very negative connotation in societies with a history of autocratic and despotic leaders,” pointing to some Anglo (European) regions with negative memories of World War II (p. 229).

Within the developmental timeline and conception of CL, stood the work of several management researchers identifying transformational leadership (Burns, 1978) as a relative, concurrent, (Bass, 1985; Bennis & Nanus, 1985; Peters & Waterman, 1982; Tichy & Devanna, 1986) and at times identical organizational management style (Avolio & Gibbons, 1998), which also empowered followers through use of strategic vision and future orientation (Bryman, 1992; Conger & Kanungo, 1994, p. 441).

Summarizing this leader profile with a theoretical proposition, Conger and Kanungo (1987, 1994, 1998) presented five charismatic leader behavioral dimensions including:

(a) vision and articulation, (b) environmental sensitivity, (c) personal risk and, (d)unconventional behavior, (e) sensitivity to follower needs for utilization in measurement and formulation of empirical evidence (p. 445). Additionally, Trice and Beyer (1986) presented their own set of five phenomenological factors associated with charismatic leaders including (a) a social crisis or desperate situation, (b) an extraordinarily gifted individual, (c) a radical set of ideas for an unorthodox solution to crisis, (d) validation of an individual’s charisma and/or superiority based on repeated successes, and (e) a group of followers both attracted and convinced by the exceptionality of that charismatic leader (pp. 118-119). Other notable contributions outlining charismatic behaviors are Hollander and Offermann (1990) and Waldman, Ramirez, House, and Puranam’s (2001) tri-fold perspectives which included (a) attitude and behavior, (b) situation, and (c) observers’ characteristics and (a) articulating a vision and mission, (b) showing determination, and (c) high performance expectations, respectively (as cited in Wu & Wang, 2012, p. 4071).

Within this brief examination of established research and analysis of CL, there is the interrelation of leader and follower and also implications for a common and applicable practice of this style cross-culturally (Bass, 1985; Conger & Kanungo, 1994; House et al., 1999; Ralston, Gustafson, Cheung, & Terpstra, 1993; Ralston et al., 2011; Ralston, Russell, & Egri, 2018; Wu & Wang, 2012).

Charismatic Leadership in Confucian Asia (China) Cultural Cluster

Wu and Wang (2012) argued that the CL framework would prove an effective Chinese leadership style within a Confucian ideology emphasizing great respect, admiration, and deference for those in authority or deemed superior (p. 4069). Akin to the links between in-group collectivism’s grounding in PL and family, is the proposition of researchers, who pointed to the CL traits in family business owners and their children’s obedience and strong compulsion to perform at high levels consistently and without challenge (Cheng, 1991 as cited in Wu & Wang, 2012, p. 4072). Moreover, Westwood, (1997) purported that one of the most paramount leadership focuses on paternalistic headship and moral character, is Confucianism.

As a direct result of this foundational spiritual belief and subsequent practices, selfless and virtuous leadership behaviors construct the identifying behavioral traits within indigenous Chinese leadership. The exhibition and demonstration of Confucian’s philosophy of leadership is a praxis that is virtuous, altruistic, attractive to followers, and engenders trust, loyalty and high group performance (Conger & Kanungo, 1994; Conger, Kanungo, & Menon, 2000; Ralston et al., 1993; Ralston et al., 2011; Ralston et al., 2018; Wu & Wang, 2012; Zhang, 2011). Chinese charismatic leaders within the Chinese cultural cluster represent the height of the attached community’s potential as the beacon of potential and an example of successful praxis (Zhang, 2011 as cited in Wu & Wang, 2012, p. 4072).

Charismatic Leadership in Sub-Saharan Africa Cultural Cluster

Akin to the indigenous strongholds resident in China are the Sub-Saharan African conceptions which are held fast to centuries-old indigenous African philosophies such as universal solidarity, collaboration and inclusivity, and general concern for others (Booysen & van Wyk, 2013, p. 470). The intrinsic links, previously reviewed, between TL and CL apply to the SSA culture cluster, concerning the application of established African humanism (Ubuntu) associated with appropriate and useful leadership models (Mangaliso, 2001; Mbigi & Maree, 1995).

It is no secret that Africa’s history of being targeted as fertile ground for emergent business ventures, through the slave trade, colonialism, and even the manipulation of the more recent neo-colonial violations (Jackson, 2011). As a result, communities within SSA have established a model of expected leadership which concurrently protects ‘Ubuntu’ and resists unwanted Western, Anglo, and more recently Asian (Chinese) encroachments to their established African institutions and leadership models. Avolio (1995) explained that leaders in SSA “work to create a climate and culture where each individual and the group can achieve their full potential” (p. 19). The tension experienced internally relative to the proper leadership and management applications in an ever-expanding global framework are equally expressed in this region and is illustrated in the diametrically opposed score results within Hofstede’s (1980) cultural dimensions, reflecting one country within the SSA; South Africa.

Jackson (2011) explained that there are two different cultural constellations within White (Anglo culture cluster) and Black (SSA culture cluster) South Africa, necessitating the use of two different leadership approaches (p. 470). Scholars explained that the bifurcated cultural (and subcultural) groups resident in South Africa, reflects a majority African American populace with a mostly Caucasian leadership pool (Booysen & van Wyk, 2013; Jackson, 2011, 2012, 2016; Mbigi, 1995; Wanasika et al., 2011). As such the process for scholars, practitioners, and researchers work on the identification of proper leadership styles is often situational at best and imperceptive at its worst, particularly within indigenous, tribal or ancient cultures, like SSA.

Within the SSA framework, effective charismatic leaders are able to bridge the many cultural and sub-cultural divides by emphasizing “a more humanistic view where people are valued for their intrinsic worth (what they are), rather than their instrumental worth (what they can do)” (Jackson, 2004, as cited in Jackson, 2011, p. 545). The collective goal for effective leadership across the SSA region should focus on the communal subsistence of follower, with enough room for the inclusion of newcomers within an ever-expanding necessity for cross-cultural management.

Charismatic Leadership in Latin America (Mexico) Cultural Cluster

Martínez, and Dorfman’s (1998) work supports the display of a kind of transformational/charismatic effective leadership model in Mexico, recalling the description and attributes of a venerated leader within their study who guided an organization through crisis, involved himself in the affairs of followers tending to their personal needs, and embodied humorous, moral, brilliant, and enthusiastic behaviors (p. 246).

As a representative country within the Latin America culture cluster, Mexico’s historical traditions and high collectivist, in-group, and power-distance dimensions, also respond well to researcher defined, charismatic leader behaviors (Barbuto, 2005; Conger & Kanungo, 1987, 1994, 1998; De Hoogh & Den Hartog, 2009; Den Hartog et al., 1999; Howell et al., 2013; Lian et al., 2011; Martínez & Dorfman, 1998; Waldman & Javidan, 2009; Wu & Wang, 2012; Yukl, 2013). Mexico’s history is replete with virtuous, strong charismatic military and political leaders able to engender the trust, loyalty, and support of an organization, community, or region with highly emotional pleas for solidarity and as a means of distinguishing themselves from others and eliminating competitive motivations internally (Dorfman et al., 1997; Howell et al., 2013).

CL praxis within this region cultivates a unified mission, making the most of the Mexican impetus for (simpatico) respect, understanding and caring, while concurrently generating high follower commitment to the collective group (Dorfman et al., 1997; Dorfman & Howell, 1997; Howell et al., 2013). Consequently, the ability for leaders to solve problems and navigate crisis engenders respect from followers and fosters positive interpersonal rapport within a high power-distance framework, that positions CL among the most effective (albeit potentially abused) leadership models within this collective culture.

Conclusion

As evidenced within this writing, cross-cultural study of varied applications of leadership styles analyzed in concert with other leadership constructs develops a fuller conception of leader effectiveness, and the interactive dynamism among a leader’s respective followers takes shape. There is a myriad of research illustrating the culturally contingent and broad application of leadership styles both actualized and perceived that are considered effective within diverse cultural constructs (Dorfman et al., 2012; Hofstede, 1980, 1994, 2001; House et al., 2004).

Much of the influential management literature in the last few decades have presented the idea of a broad-sweeping monolithic organizational culture governed almost exclusively by senior managers, as the key to success, overall (Alvesson, 2011). Consequently, many of the global organizational leadership studies identified leader profiles based on the responses of representatives from primarily Western/Anglo/European cultures (Vilkinias, Shen, & Cartan, 2009). There are some lingering uncharted outliers to the GLOBE and other exhaustive cross-cultural studies, which require additional research, scrutiny, and detailed cross-cultural analysis. Regions such as the Middle East, SSA and others with divergent internal cultural representation eliminate the convenience of utilizing broad strokes with respect to categorization among cultural dimensions (Dorfman et al., 2012; Yukl, 2013).

Although Hofstede (1980, 2001) claimed that broad studies of cultural values are meaningful at the societal level only, scholars explained that within his proposed value dimensions are potentially substantial variations of individuals in societies, and each of those individual differences directly impact outcomes (Clugston, Howell, & Dorfman, 2000; Kirkman & Shapiro, 2001). Within the last fifteen years, researchers have additionally labored to present tools and methodology to deepen and focus cross- cultural leadership studies with the inclusion of cultural intelligence measurements (Earley & Ang, 2003). The incorporation of a defined measurement of identified leadership’s cultural intelligence factors, examined: (a) leadership behaviors, (b) adaptability, (c) organizational intentionality, (d) organizational inclusion, and (e) training and development is key in researchers gathering empirically sound data on the leader effectiveness within global arenas. (Ang et al., 2007; Earley & Ang, 2003; Agarwal, Decarlo, & Vyas, 1999; Elenkov & Manev, 2009; Lima, West, Winston, & Wood, 2016; Ng, Van Dyne, & Ang, 2009).

Within leadership studies, an understanding among researchers attempted to establish the opportunity within every culture cluster to influence populations and construct reality for subordinates. For this reason, researchers are vigilant in their careful consideration of a region’s particular cultural perspective on the requirements of effective leadership. There may not be conceptions that are absolute in a particular theory’s construction, as it is often shaped by a nuanced interpretation of the interrelationships (including non-verbal interactions and expectations) between leaders and followers within a given region. Concurrent with this assumption is West’s (2018a) contention that the application of effective leadership styles, absent definition, and measurement of the factors (linked to specific outcomes) supporting that leadership process, may not yield the intended categorized results. The accumulation and analysis of empirical evidence based on the use of preexistent models or factors still leaves room for the inclusion (beyond interpretive meaning) of the organizations, groups, or nations studied.

Culture, as evidenced in this examination, is often reviewed as tremendously influenced, modified, and even altered by the leadership of its respective managerial, political, tribal, military, and familial representatives. As such, the selected regions reflect the importance of analysis beyond the outcome of cultural contexts, by probing the ways in which interactions, between leaders and followers, maintain, challenge, or even transform established cultural norms as suggested above. Further, the tremendous momentum within the selected regional culture cultures, there is a consistent and growing inter-cultural economy, which provokes continued research as the landscape, access and encroachment on centuries-old indigenous ideals and praxis are challenged (Aycan et al., 2000; Howell et al., 2013; Jackson, 2011, 2012, 2016; Jackson et al., 2013; Li, Huo, & Long, 2017; Mingzheng & Xinhui, 2014; Wanasika et al., 2011; Wang, James, Denyer, & Bailey, 2014)

The gaps of information embedded in indigenous oral traditions and subsequent misalignment of values within prescribed cultural dimensions, pushes researchers, practitioners, and scholars alike to consistently challenge the Western constructions of leadership as they may impede proper communication of effective leadership applications and implicit theories globally. Ultimately, a qualification for informed and exhaustive cross-cultural organizational leadership study lies in the researcher’s willingness and determination to connect fully with the lived experiences, motivations, and intrinsic cultural demonstrations of the people they seek to understand better.

About the Author

Meghan Rivers is a second-year Ph.D. student at Regent University, where she is studying organizational leadership. She has more than 18 years of professional experience in corporate (mgmt. consulting), ecclesial, and non-profit sectors, serving in personal and professional development, along with program management leadership functions supporting the U.S. Dept. of Defense. Her research interests include intercultural competence, humility, neuroleadership, leader communication, and shared leadership. Correspondence concerning this article should be addressed to Meghan Rivers at meghriv@mail.regent.edu.

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Love as a Replacement for Fear in the Workplace

Fear is routinely used in organizations and interpersonal relationships as a source of motivation. Some research supports the use of fear to motivate employees to work and to change. However, fear has long lasting negative effects that outweigh the motivation that it produces. This paper proposes and supports the notion of love as a central motivator in place of fear. Inner texture exegesis of 1 John 4:18, along with recent research on love in organizations, supports the move from fear to love. Love produces long lasting effects of inspiration and heart level motivation, increased creativity and effectiveness, and a release of energy. It offers holistic health and growth to individuals. Although replacing fear with love requires a paradigm shift, the effort produces an organizational environment that is more productive and more attractive to employees.

Fear as Motivation in Organizations

Fear is commonly used as a motivating force in organizations and in relationships. Tanner, Day, and Crask (1989) present projection motivation theory which concerns how individuals who process threats choose responses to cope with danger brought on by the threats (p. 267). Tanner et al. use projection motivation theory to study fear appeals used in marketing. They propose that fear appeals are most effective when subjects are presented with a coping strategy. Welbourne (1994) applies this research to organizational change and proposes that fear tactics may be used effectively in organizational change, but only when coupled with coping strategies that aid individuals in identifying behavior that will help them adapt to the change and avoid the fear- inducing consequences of the change. Welbourne advocates the use of fear in organizational change and suggests that fear is the primary motivator of change, which should be used by organizations facing change to motivate cooperation by the members. There is a stream of research that encourages the use of fear in organizations as a way to motivate their organizational members to change.

Secretan (2009) agreed that society has “embraced fear as a weapon to coerce others to do their bidding” (loc. 71). Secretan believes that in a vast majority of organizations and institutions (marketing, leadership, coaching, politics, education, health care, parenting, and religion), fear has become the “base operating system” (loc. 71). However, there is evidence from Secretan and many others that fear may not be an ideal form of motivation.

Ryan and Oestreich (1998) declare that, “fear doesn’t motivate toward constructive action. On the contrary, it nourishes competition within an organization, fosters short-term thinking, destroys trust, erodes joy and pride in work, stifles innovation and distorts communication” (p. xiii). They acknowledge that fear is the primary motivator employed by many organizations. However, they find that fear consistently undermines “the commitment, motivation, and confidence of people at work” (Ryan & Oestreich, 1998). They believe that the key to breaking the power of fear is to create environments where trust, productivity and innovation can flourish, and that banishing fear is the only way to accomplish this goal.

Although some previous research such as Welbourne’s (1994) advocates the use of fear to motivate people towards change, other authors disagree. According to Ryan (1998), fear breeds the absence of motivation and ideas; in fact, fear crushes enthusiasm and creativity. Fear causes people to live in silence, afraid to talk about issues that need to be discussed. Fear discourages communication, creating an environment where individuals are reluctant to speak up, causing negativity, anger and frustration (Ryan & Oestreich, 1998, p. 5). Helliwell (2009) finds that individual fear undermines trust and often manifests itself in “territorialism, aggression, depression, and escapism” (loc. 1476). Furthermore, fearful people are unable to do their best work since much of their time and energy are spent watching their backs, covering themselves, and playing it safe (Helliwell, 2009, loc. 1524). People are unable to fulfill their potential; they are miserable, and only able to give a fraction of what they could if they were not controlled by fear (Helliwell, 2009, loc. 1524). Helliwell also found that when under the influence of fear even irrational fears appear rational. People under the influence of fear are in an unbalanced emotional state and lose their sense of perspective. Fearful people tend to see the negative side of things, tend to see visions of doom and generally feel that their lives are covered in a murky gray cloud (Helliwell, 2009, loc. 1493).

It is evident from this research that fear, while widely used in the work place, does more harm than good. Fear creates an environment where people are less productive causing individuals and the organization as a whole to suffer. Fear makes people not speak up, not give their whole selves at work, but rather act in ways that are self-protective. While used to motivate people, fear often falls short and ends up demotivating them. Ryan and Oestreich (1998) propose that the way to dispel fear in the workplace is through fostering trust. Trust encourages people to talk about problems and is in opposition to fear. Secretan (2009) proposes that love is the psychological, emotional and spiritual opposite of fear (loc. 74). Scretan believes that although fear can produce some kind of motivation, but only love can inspire. He proposes that, “love is the place that gives rise to inspiration” (2009, loc. 74).

Fear and Love in 1 John 4:18

A biblical passage that talks directly about fear and love, 1 John 4:18, speaks of perfect love that casts out fear. A closer exegesis of this passage illuminates the biblical concepts of love and fear and gives further support to love as the central motivator replacing fear.

The author of 1 John wrote the book in the context of Christians who had left the church and were denying that Jesus was the son of God (Elwell & Beitzel, 1988). In response to this, the author of 1 John introduced a theme of love, which permeates the book with over 40% of the verses in 1 John dealing directly with the subject of love (Bartling, 1958). The author made the case that anyone who does not act in love does not know God (4:8). The logic is this: God is love and so those who love know God and those who do not love do not know God. 1 John 4:7-21 urges Christians to accept God’s unconditional love for them and in turn to show love to one another. It is in the midst of this appeal to embrace God’s perfect love and love one another that 1 John 4:18 states: “There is no fear in love, but perfect love casts out fear; for fear has to do with punishment, and whoever fears has not reached perfection in love” (New Revised Standard Version).

There are two kinds of fear spoken of in the Bible in regard to God. There is fear that refers to the reverence of a son in obedience to his father, which is eulabeia. This form of fear is often used in regard to Christians fearing (or respecting, obeying, humbling themselves before) God. However, in this verse fear refers to the fear and dread that a bond-slave may have, phobos (Robertson, 1933). This verse states that fear has to do with punishment. This is true from the literature on fear; punishment or threat of punishment is used to cause fear, which then motivates people to do things they would otherwise not do. Fear and punishment in the Bible and in the literature are always bound together.

From this verse, we find that fear and love are mutually exclusive (Jackman, 1988; Marshall, 1978). When God’s perfect love is present, fear is cast out, forcefully removed, because the two cannot coexist together. If there is fear, perfect love is not present. If there is perfect love, fear cannot be present. This verse establishes that perfect love is the opposite of fear and that the two cannot coexist together. However, God alone can live out perfect love. Perfect love is not an option for every person because of human nature; humans are unable to enact perfect love as God does. As 1 John 4:18 shows, Christians must live in a state of love, mirrored after God’s perfect love, and it is God’s perfect love that casts out fear. Christians, therefore, should not use fear as a relational tactic, but rather love, love that is modeled after God’s perfect love.

The Greek word used to describe the love that Christians are to have for God and for others in this passage is agapao. Agape love and agapao love are often seen as interchangeable, but Winston (2002) makes a distinction between them. Agape love, which is used in this passage only to describe God’s love “is a self-sacrificing love that references total commitment even unto death” (Winston, 2002, p. 5). The statement “God is love” made in 1 John 4:16 is an example of the usage of the word agape. Agapao love, on the other hand, is defined as “a moral love, doing the right thing at the right time for the right reason. To love in a social or moral sense, embracing the judgment and the deliberate assent of the will as a matter of principle, duty, and propriety” (Winston, 2002, p. 5). Agapao love is the kind of love that Christians are to have towards God and towards their neighbors. Every instance of a person loving God or loving others in this passage is agapao, a human love that mirrors God’s love, but is not the same as God’s love.

This passage advocates the act of agapao love as the central place for the Christian. Love (agapao) of God and love (agapao) of others is expected as an act of knowing and accepting God’s (agape) love. Christian leaders need to make their foundational approach to leadership enacting love as it is described in this passage. The work environment then becomes permeated with love, rather than the cultural norm of fear. Agapao love as described by Winston (2002) is a moral love that does the right thing at the right time for the right reason; it is the foundation of relationships between people and produces motivation at the heart level, even inspiration. In an environment permeated with love, fear has no place. And conversely in an environment permeated with fear, love has no place.

Love and Respect as a Replacement for Fear in the Workplace

A number of authors advocate love as a replacement for fear in organizations and relationships in general. Secretan (2009) proposes that a leader who is humble, forgiving and loving is more authentic and is more inspiring and effective as a leader. He believes that love should take the place of fear and defined love as “the place where my heart touches your heart and adds to who you are as a person” (loc. 81).

Regine (2009) believes that vulnerability is power; feeling vulnerable is “letting yourself feel the love and be in the love” (loc. 173). Vulnerability is described as an “incredible connectedness” with other human beings, in the moment of communication, in which each person is heard and validated. In essence Regine advocates love and vulnerability to unleash authenticity and to promote deep level communication and understanding (loc. 172).

Ryan and Oestreich (1998) believe that the opposite of a fear-based organization is a trust-based organization. Covey (2006) also proposed that trust is the foundation of changing everything in an organization. Covey (2006) delineated a process for fostering and increasing trust in organizations that involves self-trust, relational trust and stakeholder trust. Covey (2006) believes that trust fosters good communication, respect, transparency, and justice; overall, trust helps organizations to be much more efficient in every way. Trust, as these authors present it, can best be fostered by a loving environment, but trust is destroyed by fear.

Caldwell and Dixon (2009) advocate that to promote employee ownership, commitment, and individual initiative, employees need to be inspired by their leaders. A review of the organizational leadership research finds that love, forgiveness, and trust are essential values for leaders who desire to maximize the value of organizations and at the same time enable individuals to become the best they can be.

Argandona (2011) argues that the mechanistic view of organizations that focuses primarily on the procuring of resources, making of goods and services, and selling of goods and services leaves no room for love. In this view of an organization people are another resource and the relationships between people are governed by contractual agreements. Instead, Argandona presentes organizations as many individual people connected by relationships and motivated (or de- motivated) to work. Each action is motivated by extrinsic reasons (reward or punishment), intrinsic reasons, and external reasons (how the action effects others in the organization). Argandona proposes that transcendent values also affect people because they want to act in moral ways that have positive effects on the organization and especially on other people. In order to create an organization that is effective, attractive, and that grows and changes over time, people must be treated as whole people in the organization. Argandona argues that contractual agreements do not inspire, but love enacted in different ways throughout the organization produces inspiration and releases human motivation in a way that contractual relationships cannot.

Ahiauzu and Asawo (2010) conducted a quantitative study in Nigeria, which measures altruistic love in the workplace with worker commitment. Their study provides evidence that altruistic love practiced in the workplace leads to high affective and normative commitment on the part of workers (p. 97). This study lends quantitative evidence that at least one aspect of work (worker commitment) is increased in an environment of altruistic love. Further quantitative research such as this could be conducted to measure multiple outcomes of altruistic love in the workplace.

Ferris (1988) proposes that organizational love is the foundation of all that organizations seek to accomplish. Employees today are interested in life values, fulfillment, and a sense of wholeness, all of which Ferris believes are founded in love (p. 41). Furthermore, leaders are expected to have creative insight, sensitivity, vision, and connection with employees, which Ferris argues are all based on love. Argandona (2011) defines love as “a feeling of caring or deep respect for yourself and others, of valuing and believing in yourself and others, and of helping to achieve the best of which everyone is capable” (p. 42). Ferris (1988) notices that love does not fit well with the modern notion of how organizations are run, and yet for the underlying needs of employees to be treated holistically and for organizations to be productive, love needs to become an acceptable norm. Love in an organization means caring for the health of individuals: physical, emotional, mental and spiritual health. It means sharing power, and truly caring and desiring the best for others. Ferris believes that focusing on love in organizations demands a paradigm shift away from our present cultural norms for organizations. However, Ferris also believes the rewards are great: releasing a vast amount of human energy through inspiration, creating a deeper and more holistic organizational alignment, releasing energy for productivity and creativity, and creating stronger and more empowering leadership.

Bakke (2005) shares lessons learned from many years of leading a multi-national energy company. Bakke’s passion is “to make work exciting, rewarding, stimulating and enjoyable” (p. 13). Bakke’s philosophy of leading is to care deeply for those he works with and to do everything in his power to make them feel in control of their work and capable of making decisions. Bakke believes that the biggest determinant of an employee’s effectiveness is not intelligence and education, but rather

an organizational culture that “treats people of every background as creative, capable, responsible, and trustworthy” (p. 182). Bakke promotes a work environment of love, concern and respect for every individual. In Bakke’s personal experience, when he purchased a power plant and implemented his principles of love and respect in the workplace, the power plant could be run with approximately half the employees and produce approximately double the electricity. Bakke found this to be consistently true no matter what country the power plant was in. Bakke’s experience shows that an environment of love and respect unleashes creativity, initiative, effectiveness, and efficiency that is stifled in an environment of contractual agreements, or worse yet, an environment of fear.

This literature builds a strong case for love to replace fear as the basis of the work environment. Love fosters inspiration, harnesses the full capacity of the person, and releases organizational members to realize their full potential. Although fear has a motivational effect, it also has devastating and limiting consequences. Love empowers, creates, and releases; most of all it inspires people to apply themselves fully and frees them to realize their potential.

Conclusion

The default motivator in organizations and relationships is fear. It comes naturally, is easy, and has immediate effects. It seems to fit nicely into the mechanistic view of organizations and the contractual relationship between employees and their supervisors. Many modern organizations use some sort of fear to control or motivate members. However, fear also has negative effects. Although it may produce motivation, it also undermines trust, crushes creativity and at best offers only moderate amounts of motivation.

The inner texture exegesis of 1 John 4:18, as well as current research on love and fear in organizations, supports the notion of substituting love for fear in the workplace and in personal relationships. Love creates the foundation for trust, creativity, openness, and living up to one’s full potential. Love has the capability of motivating from a heart level, motivating through inspiration. Where fear has crippling consequences for a mediocre boost in motivation, love produces positive results and motivates through heart level inspiration, unlocking potential that would be crushed by fear.

About the Author

Debby Thomas is a third-year Ph.D. student at Regent University where she is studying organizational leadership. For the last 17 years, she has been involved with the Friends Church of Rwanda as a missionary especially focusing on whole life transformation through a relational discipleship process in Rwandan communities.

Correspondence concerning this article should be addressed to Debby Thomas at debdavethomas@yahoo.com

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An Examination of Self-Leadership

The increased competition that some organizations face requires change from traditional management to shared leadership. Employees who possess personal attributes such as need for autonomy and general self-efficacy may be more likely to take responsibility and work effectively in empowered environments. These employees may also be more likely to make efforts to improve their individual performance, such as making use of self-leadership strategies. This study examines individual differences that may influence the use of self-leadership strategies. The results of the study show a positive significant relationship between general self- efficacy and use of natural reward, constructive thought, and general self-leadership skills. The study finds women are more likely than men to use behavior-focused, natural reward, constructive thought, and general self-leadership skills.

The increased competition that some organizations face requires a change from traditional management of employees with command-and-control leadership to shared leadership among employees in the organization (Arnold, Arad, Rhoades, & Drasgow, 2000; Pearce, 2007). Rather than top-down structures where leaders make decisions, some contemporary organizations need employees to take more responsibility and participate in decision making (Costello, Brunner & Hasty, 2002). These changing conditions require leaders who are capable of helping employees become self-leaders and followers with interest in sharing leadership responsibility (Stewart, Manz & Sims, 1999).

Employees who possess personal attributes such as need for autonomy and general self-efficacy may be more likely to take responsibility, participate in decision making, and practice self-leadership strategies. Previous research by Yun, Cox, and Sims (2006) has shown that individuals differ in the way they respond to opportunities to share leadership responsibility.

People with need for autonomy and general self-efficacy may be more likely to view themselves as capable and expect success (Gardner & Pierce, 1998; Judge, Locke, & Durham, 1997; Chen, Gully, & Eden, 2001; Shelton, 1990; Sherer, Maddux, Mercandante, Prentice-Dunn, Jacobs, & Rogers, 1982; Yun et al.). They may also desire control and influence over their work and may want to make decisions related to their jobs (Yun et al.). Individuals with high general self-efficacy may also be more likely to believe they can accomplish what they want to accomplish (Maddux, 2002). Individuals characterized as self-leaders direct their own efforts, persist in situations of adversity, personally motivate themselves, and continually renew thinking patterns (Manz & Sims, 1989).

Self-leaders may be more likely to engage in innovative behaviors in the workplace (Carmeli, Meitar, & Weisberg, 2006), and self-leadership represents a self-influence process that involves self-direction and self-motivation (DiLiello & Houghton, 2006; Manz & Neck, 2004). Individuals who use self-leadership strategies enhance their personal effectiveness through behavior-focused, natural reward and constructive thought strategies (Manz & Neck; Manz & Sims, 2001; Prussia, Anderson, & Manz, 1998). Behavior-focused strategies help facilitate behavior management. Natural reward strategies helps individuals shape perceptions and build enjoyable aspects into activities and constructive thought strategies create positive ways of thinking (Neck & Houghton, 2006).

In environments where employees are encouraged to act on their own behalf and take greater control (Conger & Kanungo, 1988; Staples, 1990; Prussia et al., 1998), the strategies of self-leadership may be useful for achieving the necessary self-direction and self-motivation to perform well (Neck & Houghton, 2006). Therefore, practitioners and researchers alike may benefit from gaining insight about what influences the use of self-leadership strategies. The present study attempts to answer one overarching research question: Are there individual differences that influence the likelihood that a person will use self-leadership strategies?

In this empirical study, this research question is examined with a sample of graduate students from a small, liberal arts university in the Midwest. Previous self-leadership studies have focused on theoretical propositions regarding autonomous action and general self-efficacy on self-leadership (e.g., DiLiello & Houghton, 2006; Manz, 1986; Markham & Markham, 1995; Neck & Houghton, 2006). No previous study has examined the influence of general self-efficacy on self-leadership; although, an association between self-leadership and general self-efficacy is proposed conceptually (Neck & Houghton, 2006; Williams, 1997). The purpose of the present study is to examine the relationship between need for autonomy and general self-efficacy on self-leadership, to determine the extent to which these individual differences influence the use of self-leadership strategies. A model of the hypothesized relationship among need for autonomy, general self-efficacy and self-leadership strategies is shown in Figure 1.

self-leadership strategies come from a need for autonomy and general efficacy

Figure 1. Model of hypothesized relationship among need for autonomy, general self-efficacy, and self-leadership strategies.

Model Development

Are there individual differences that influence the likelihood a person will use self- leadership strategies? Answering this research question is the focus of this study. This empirical study tests the relationship between need for autonomy and general self-efficacy on self- leadership.

Self-Leadership

The theoretical foundation of self-leadership is built upon social learning theory (Bandura, 1977) and social cognitive theory (Bandura, 1986). Social leaning theory (Bandura, 1977, 1997) explains how people can influence their own cognition, motivation, and behavior (Yun et al., 2006). Social cognitive theory explains that people and their environment interact continually (Satterfield & Davidson, 2000) and behavioral consequences serve as sources of information and motivation (Bandura, 1986; Schunk, 2001). Self-leadership explains how self- leaders think and how they behave according to cognitive, motivational, and behavioral strategies (Kraft, 1998; Prussia et al., 1998; Yun et al., 2006).

The three strategies associated with self-leadership include behavior-focused, natural reward, and constructive thought strategies (Manz & Neck, 2004; Neck & Houghton, 2006; Prussia et al., 1998). Behavior-focused strategies heighten self-awareness and facilitate personal behavioral management through methods such as self-goal setting, self-reward, self-punishment, self-observation, and self-cueing (Neck & Houghton, 2006). Natural reward strategies help people build pleasant and enjoyable features into their activities so that the tasks themselves become naturally rewarding (e.g., Manz & Neck, 2004). Natural reward strategies increase intrinsic motivation, self-determination, and feelings of competence (Deci & Ryan, 1985; Neck & Houghton, 2006). Constructive thought strategies create positive habitual ways of thinking and negative destructive self-talk is replaced by optimistic self-talk (Seligman, 1991; Neck & Houghton, 2006). Constructive thought strategies can change thinking patterns (Prussia et al., 1998) and positively impact outcome expectations (Boss & Sims, 2008).

Need For Autonomy

Need for autonomy influences self-leadership and helps motivate autonomous action (Deci & Ryan, 2000; Edmunds, Ntoumanis & Duda, 2006; Yun et al., 2006) as explained by the self-determination theory (Deci, 1975; Deci & Ryan, 1985, 2000). Self-determination theory explains that the degree of a person’s self-motivation is determined by the extent to which his or her behavior or actions are autonomous or controlled (Deci & Ryan, 2000). External forces that pressure an individual to engage in particular behaviors describe controlled actions, whereas freely initiated behaviors that emanate from within a person explain autonomous actions (Edmunds et al., 2006; Reeve, 2002).

Deci and Ryan (1985) explained that autonomously-oriented individuals make choices using the information available to them and they regulate themselves as they pursue self-selected goals. Self-determined choices are considered motivational behaviors when the choice of action flows freely, intuitively, and spontaneously (Czikszentmihalyi, 1975; Deci & Ryan, 1985). When constraints exist or situations in the environment limit choices, autonomously-oriented people may make a “choiceful accommodation” (Deci & Ryan, 1985). In this way, the limitation is transformed into another piece of information that is used in making decisions (Deci & Ryan, 1985). In other words, the rejected options are fully considered and the person experiences freedom to select among all the choices available. Deci and Ryan (1985) explained autonomous action involves making flexible, genuine choices and genuine choice means truly entertaining more than one option.

The need for autonomy refers to a person’s desire to engage in activities of his or her choosing (deCharms, 1968; Deci, 1975; Deci & Ryan, 1985; Edmunds et al., 2006). People with a desire or predisposition to take responsibility, act independently, and make decisions about their job have been characterized as employees with a high need for autonomy (Kupfer, 1990; Mathis & Jackson, 2006; Yun et al., 2006). Need for autonomy explains expectations about making independent choices, participating in the decision process (Yun et al.), taking autonomous action, and choosing for oneself both what to think and what to do (Kupfer, 1990).

The need for autonomy on the job refers to the extent to which individuals desire freedom and discretion in their work (Mathis & Jackson, 2006). Research studies support the proposition that employees with high need for autonomy desire to make independent choices and participate in decision making (Harrell & Alpert, 1979; Yun et al., 2006). Making independent choices and participating in decision-making have been found to represent characteristics of educated, ambitious people who want to be managers and leaders (Harrell & Alpert). Yun et al. tested the interaction between need for autonomy on self-leadership, and they found a positive relationship between these constructs; therefore, this study proposes a positive relationship exists between need for autonomy and use of self-leadership strategies.

There will be a positive relationship between need for autonomy and use of self- leadership strategies.

General Self-Efficacy

Social cognitive theory provides insight regarding self-efficacy and explains where self- efficacy comes from and how it develops (Maddux, 2002). The theory postulates people are active shapers of their environment, not merely passive reactors (Bandura, 1986, Barone, Maddux, & Snyder, 1997). Self-efficacy beliefs develop over time and through experiences (Maddux, 2002). Self-efficacy refers to beliefs about personal capability to produce a desired effect by individual action (Bandura, 1997). Self-efficacy helps explain the behaviors people will engage, how long they will persist, and how much effort they will expend to reach their goals (Satterfield & Davidson, 2000). People with high self-efficacy may be more likely to overcome difficulties through self-initiated change, more likely to be goal-directed and more persistent in the achievement of that goal (Maddux, 2002). In essence, the self-assessments that people make in determining personal capacity to perform refer to self-efficacy (Bandura, 1986, 1991; Gist, 1987; Neck & Houghton, 2006).

People with general self-efficacy tend to deal more effectively with difficulties and persist in the face of failure (Cordery & Burr, 2005; Gist & Mitchell, 1992; Judge & Bono, 2001). They may also be more confident in their fundamental abilities to cope, perform, and be successful (Cordery & Burr; Judge & Bono). DeRue and Morgeson (2007) posited that individuals with general self-efficacy attribute success to ability and failure to insufficient effort. Chen, Gully, and Eden (2004) indicated that general self-efficacy is a motivational belief or judgment about personal capabilities that influences personal action in a wide variety of situations.

General self-efficacy refers to an accumulation of life successes that have emerged as a result of previous experience (Bandura, 1977; Chen et al., 2001). Rather than a malleable state- like belief, general self-efficacy represents a stable, trait-like belief (Chen et al., 2004). Various self-leadership studies identify specific task self-efficacy as a construct influential in the use of self-leadership strategies (e.g., Prussia et al., 1998). Yet, Neck and Houghton (2006) recommended that researchers should investigate the relationship between self-leadership and general self-efficacy. Previous research studies have also suggested a theoretical relationship exists between general self-efficacy and self-leadership (Neck & Houghton, 2006; Williams, 1997). Conceptually, general self-efficacy may influence self-leadership (Neck & Houghton, 2006). The present study empirically tests the relationship between general self-efficacy and self- leadership to determine if general self-efficacy beliefs influence the use self-leadership strategies.

There will be a positive relationship between general self-efficacy and self-leadership.

Method

Sample

Graduate students (N = 124) enrolled in summer courses at a small, liberal arts university in the Midwest were invited to participate in the study. Participation was voluntary but encouraged and responses were anonymous and confidential. The actual sample consisted of 121 graduate students representing a 97.5% participation rate. The average age of participants was approximately 36 years (SD = 9.67), and the sample was made up of 59.5% females and 40.5% males. The average tenure of participants was 6.68 years (SD = 6.78) with a range of tenure between 1 and 30 years.

Procedures

A single stage sampling procedure was utilized for drawing the convenience sample from the population of interest (Creswell, 2003). A questionnaire was used for collecting data from graduate students. Permission was obtained from graduate faculty for administering the survey and students received informed consent information along with procedures for the study. An attempt was made to increase the likelihood of obtaining the true score on need for autonomy, general self-efficacy, and self-leadership strategies rather than scores with systematic error by

reducing evaluation apprehension (Donaldson & Grant-Vallone, 2002; Podsakoff, MacKenzie, Lee, & Podsakoff, 2003). Respondents were assured of anonymity, and they were informed that there was no right or wrong answers (Podsakoff et al.). The questionnaires were administered in a group setting at the start of class sessions and respondents took approximately 15 minutes to complete the survey.

The study took place in face-to-face classrooms among graduate students enrolled in summer courses at a small, liberal arts university located in the Midwest. A questionnaire with closed-ended statements was administered in paper-and-pencil format. The survey included closed-ended statements with fixed responses. Responses were obtained to measure need for autonomy (Yun et al., 2006), general self-efficacy (Chen et al., 2001), and self-leadership (Houghton & Neck, 2002). Self-report information was also gathered from respondents regarding gender, age, and tenure. In order to address issues of self-report bias, Podsakoff and Organ (1986) suggested that researchers may reorder the items on the questionnaire so the criterion variable follows the independent variables. This scale reordering procedure was intentional as an attempt to reduce self-report bias, because all the variables in the study were obtained from the same respondents using a single survey.

Measures

Self-leadership strategies. The criterion or dependent variables in the study include the three self-leadership strategies namely behavior-focused, natural reward, and constructive thought strategies, along with an overall measure of general self-leadership. The dependent variables were measured using the Revised Self-Leadership Questionnaire (RSLQ) developed by Houghton and Neck (2002). There are 35 item statements in the self-leadership scale measuring behavior-focused, natural reward, and cognitive thought strategies. Self-leadership strategies were scored using a 5-point Likert scale with 1 (not at all accurate), 2 (somewhat accurate), 3 (a little accurate), 4 (mostly accurate), and 5 (completely accurate). There are nine subscales in the RSLQ. Behavior-focused self-leadership can be measured with five subscales identified as self- goal setting (5 items), self-reward (3 items), self-punishment (4 items), self-observation (4 items), and self-cueing (2 items). Natural reward self-leadership is measured with a single 5-item scale. Constructive thought self-leadership is measured with three subscales, including visualizing successful performance (5 items), self-talk (3 items), and evaluating beliefs and assumptions (4 items). A single measure of self-leadership was also computed with the average scores of behavior-focused, natural reward, and constructive thought strategies, and this single measure is referred to as general self-leadership.

A sample item statement from the behavior-focused dimension is, “I establish specific goals for my own performance.” A sample item statement from the natural reward dimension is, “I find my own favorite way to get things done.” A sample item statement from the constructive thought dimension is, “I visualize myself successfully performing a task before I do it.” The reliability of the scale was established by Houghton and Neck (2002) in two studies with respondents from two introductory management courses at a large southeastern university, and they reported internal consistency with the coefficient alpha ranging from .74 to .93. For the present study, the Cronbach’s alpha was .88 for behavior-focused, .78 for natural reward, .88 for constructive thought, and .93 for general self-leadership. Table 1 displays the self-leadership strategies and Cronbach’s alpha for the present study.

Table 1 Self-Leadership Strategies and Cronbach’s Alpha (N = 121)

Self-Leadership StrategiesCronbach’s Alpha, α
Behavior-focused.88
Natural reward.78
Constructive thought.88
General self-leadership.93

Need for autonomy.

Need for autonomy was measured with a scale developed by Yun et al. (2006), and the scale measures a person’s desire or predisposition to be independent and free of external control. There are three items statements in the scale. Need for autonomy was scored using a 5-point Likert scale with 1 (definitely not true), 2 (not true), 3 (neither true nor untrue), 4 (true), and 5 (definitely true). A sample statement from the need for autonomy scale is, “In my ideal job I would find solutions to my own problems at work without consulting my supervisor.” The scale was used by Yun et al. (2006) in a self-leadership study and they reported the scale to be slightly lower than the desired .70 (α = .68). Yun et al. (2006) tested the need for autonomy on self-leadership and found a positive and significant relationship. For the present study, the Cronbach’s alpha was .69.

General self-efficacy.

General self-efficacy was measured using the New General Self- Efficacy (NGSE) scale developed by Chen et al. (2001). There are eight item statements in the general self-efficacy scale that measures an individual’s perception of ability to perform across a wide range of situations (Chen et al., 2001; Scherbaum, Cohen-Charash, & Kern, 2006). General self-efficacy was scored using a 7-point Likert scale with 1 (strongly agree), 2 (somewhat agree), 3 (agree), 4 (neither agree nor disagree), 5 (disagree), 6 (somewhat disagree), and 7 (strongly disagree). A sample statement from the general self-efficacy scales is, “In general, I think that I can obtain outcomes that are important to me.” The reliability of the NGSE scale was tested by Chen et al. (2001) with 323 undergraduate students from a large mid-Atlantic university and their study reported internal consistency with the coefficient alpha ranging from .86 to .90. For the present study, the Cronbach’s alpha was .90.

Control variables.

The participants were selected using a non-random sampling procedure; therefore, the selection process for the study may pose a threat to internal validity (Kerlinger & Lee, 1999). In an effort to strengthen internal validity of the study, gender, age, and tenure were control variables. Participants provided information regarding gender, age, and tenure through self-report when completing the self-administered questionnaire. In a previous study examining the relationship between self-leadership skills and innovation at work, job tenure, age, and gender were controlled and Carmeli et al. (2006) found these control variables significantly contributed to the variance in the dependent variable (R2 = .08; F = 2.46, p = 0.03).

Results

Descriptive Statistics

Responses from the survey were entered into SPSS (Version 15.0) statistical software and were used to compute descriptive statistics. The means and standard deviations are shown in Table 2 for the control, predictor, and criterion variables of the study. Need for autonomy and self-leadership strategies were measured using a 5-point Likert scale and general self-efficacy was measured using a 7-point Likert scale.

Table 2 Descriptive Statistics (N = 121)

VariableMSD
1. Gendera1.41.49
2. Age35.589.67
3. Tenure6.686.78
4. Need for autonomy3.98.67
5. General self-efficacy6.14.70
6. Behavior-focused3.95.60
7. Natural reward3.91.66
8. Constructive thought3.61.72
9. General self-leadership3.76.56
aGender was coded 1 for female and 2 for male.

Correlations

A correlation analysis was performed for examining the nature and degree of relationship among the predictor and criterion variables of the study. The results of the Pearson r correlation analysis and internal consistencies are shown in Table 3.

Table 3 Correlations and Internal Consistencies (N = 121)

Variable123456789
GenderaAge  .04  –       
3. Tenure.01.57**–      
4. Need for autonomy.01.05.26**(.69)     
5. General self-efficacy.00-.04.06.18*(.90)    
6. Behavior-focused-.44**-.11.03.03.17(.88)   
7. Natural reward-.39**-.24-.10.06.38**.62**(.78)  
8. Constructive thought-.29**.07.00.06.28**.63**.44**(.88) 
9. General self-leadership-.44**-.11-.03.06.33**.88**.81**.84**(.93)
Note. Numbers in parentheses are internal reliabilities (Cronbach’s alpha) for each measure.
aGender was coded 1 for female and 2 for male.
*p < .05. **p < .01.

Need for autonomy and self-leadership.

There is no correlation between the need for autonomy and general self-leadership (r = .06). Neither is there a correlation between need for autonomy and behavior focused (r = .03), natural reward (r = .06) nor constructive thought (r = .06) self-leadership strategies.

General self-efficacy and leadership.

There is a positive and significant correlation between general self-efficacy and general self-leadership (r = .33, p < .01). A positive but weak and non-significant relationship was found between general self-efficacy and behavior-focused self-leadership strategies (r = .17). Positive and significant relationships were found between general self-efficacy and natural reward strategies (r = .38, p < .01) and general self-efficacy and constructive thought strategies (r = .28, p < .01).

Self-leadership.

There is a positive and significant relationship between behavior-focused and natural reward (r = .62, p < .01) and behavior-focused and constructive thought leadership strategies (r = .63, p < .01). There is also a positive and significant relationship between natural reward and constructive thought self-leadership strategies (r = .44, p < .01).

Other correlations.

There was a correlation found between age and tenure (r = .57, p < .01) and a positive and significant correlation was found between need for autonomy and general self-efficacy (r = .18, p < .05). The results of the correlation analysis indicate there is a low correlation between the need for autonomy, general self-efficacy, and general self-leadership scales; therefore, the empirical data suggests these constructs of the model are both theoretically and empirically distinct.

Hierarchical Regression Analysis

General self-leadership analysis.

Hierarchical regression analysis was conducted to examine the contribution of specific theory driven variables in explaining the dependent variables. In order to control for possible confounding influences of extraneous variables, gender, age, and tenure were first entered into the hierarchical procedure and represent Step 1. Need for autonomy and general self-efficacy, the two additional predictor variables, were added in the next step and represent Step 2.

The combination of the variables in Step 2 significantly predicted general self-leadership, F(5, 118) = 9.85, p < .01; adjusted R2 = .27. The beta weights suggest gender (β = -.43, t = -5.49, p < .01) contributes the most to the explanation of general self-leadership. General self-efficacy (β = .33, t = 4.09, p < .01) is the next significant contributor to the regression equation. The adjusted R2 value for Step 1 is .18 indicating 18% of the variance in general self-leadership is explained in model one. The adjusted R2 for Step 2 is .27 indicating 27% of the variance in self- leadership is explained by model 2. Since the adjusted R2 value rises from 18% to 27% in model 2, model 2 provides a better explanation of the individual differences influential on general self- leadership. The regression analysis results for general self-leadership are shown in Table 4.

Table 4 Hierarchical Regression Analysis – General Self-Leadership (N = 121)

General Self-LeadershipBSE BΒ
Step 1   
Gender-.49.10-.43**
Age-.01.01-.11
Tenure.00.01.04
Step 2   
Gender-.49.09-.43**
Age.00.01-.06
Tenure.00.01-.01
Need for autonomy.01.07.02
General self-efficacy.26.06.33**
Note. R2 = .20 for Step 1. Adjusted R2 = .27 for Step 2.
*p < .05. **p < .01.

Self-leadership strategies.

The same hierarchical regression procedures were followed to examine the relationship between the predictor variables on behavior-focused, natural reward and constructive thought self-leadership strategies. When testing behavior-focused self- leadership strategies, gender (β = -.43, t = -5.24, p < .01) and general self-efficacy (β = .17, t = 2.04, p = .04) significantly contributed to the regression equation, F(5, 118) = 7.01, p < .01; adjusted R2 = .20. The hierarchical regression analysis results for variables explaining behavior- focused strategies are shown in Table 5.

Table 5 Hierarchical Regression Analysis – Behavior Focused Self-Leadership (N = 121)

Behavior-FocusedBSE BΒ
Step 1   
Gender-.53.10-.43**
Age-.01.01-.16
Tenure.01.01.13
Step 2   
Gender-.53.10-.43**
Age-.01.01-.14
Tenure.01.01.11
Need for autonomy-.0108-.01
General self-efficacy.15.07.17*
Note. R2 = .21 for Step 1. Adjusted R2 = .20 for Step 2.
*p < .05. **p < .01.

When testing natural reward strategies, gender (β = -.38, t = -4.87, p < .01), age (β = -.20, t = -2.08, p = .04), and general self-efficacy (β = .36, t = 4.58, p < .01) significantly contributed to the regression equation, F(5, 118) = 10.96, p < .01; adjusted R2 = .30. The results for variables explaining natural reward self-leadership are shown in Table 6.

Table 6 Hierarchical Regression – Natural Reward Self-Leadership (N = 121)

Natural RewardBSE BΒ
Step 1   
Gender-.50.11-.38**
Age-.02.01-.24*
Tenure Step 2.00.01.04
Gender-.50.10-.38**
Age-.01.01-.20*
Tenure.00.01-.01
Need for autonomy.02.08.02
General self-efficacy.34.07.36**
Note. R2 = .20 for Step 1. Adjusted R2 = .30 for Step 2.
*p < .05. **p < .01.

When examining constructive thought strategies, gender (β = -.30, t = – 3.46. p < .01) and general self-efficacy (β = .29, t = 3.30, p < .01) significantly contributed to the regression equation, F(5, 118) = 4.88, p < .01; adjusted R2 = .14. The hierarchical regression analyses for the variables explaining constructive thought self-leadership are shown in Table 7.

Table 7 Hierarchical Regression Analysis – Constructive Thought Self-Leadership (N = 121)

Constructive ThoughtBSE BB
Step 1
Gender-.43.13-.30**
Age.01.01.11
Tenure-.01.01-.06
Step 2   
Gender-.43.13-.30**
Age.01.01.15
Tenure-.01.01-.11
Need for autonomy.03.10.03
General self-efficacy.30.09.29**
Note. R2 = .09 for Step 1. Adjusted R2 = .14 for Step 2.
*p < .05. **p < .01.

Hypothesis Testing Results

A relationship was not found between need for autonomy and general self-leadership (r =

.06). Neither was a relationship found between need for autonomy and behavior-focused self- leadership (r = .03), natural reward self-leadership (r = .06), nor constructive thought self- leadership strategies (r = .06); therefore, hypothesis 1 was not supported.

There was a multivariate relationship between general self-efficacy and general self- leadership (r = .33, p < .01). A positive and significant relationship was also found between general self-efficacy and natural reward (r = .38, p < .01) and constructive thought self- leadership strategies (r = .28, p < .01). Since a significant relationship between general self- efficacy and behavior-focused self-leadership was not found (r = .17), hypothesis 2 was only partially supported.

The study further examined the relationship between need for autonomy and general self- efficacy on self-leadership including behavior-focused, natural reward, constructive thought, and general self-leadership after controlling for gender, age, and tenure. The results revealed the need for autonomy did not significantly contribute to the general self-leadership, behavior-focused, natural reward, or constructive thought strategies. General self-efficacy did significantly contribute to general self-leadership (β = .33, t = 4.09, p < .01), behavior-focused (β = .17, t = 2.04, p = .04), natural reward (β = .36, t = 4.58, p < .01), and constructive thought self- leadership strategies (β = .29, t = 3.30, p < .01).

Additional Analysis

The data of the present study revealed that there were differences in the general self- leadership scores between females and males in the study sample. The average general self- leadership score for females was 3.96 (SD = .43), and the average general self-leadership score for males was 3.46 (SD = .59). In an independent samples t-test with unequal variances, the analysis showed that the general self-leadership scores for males and females differ significantly, t(80.98) = 4.99, p < .01. This study found that women are more likely than men to use general self-leadership strategies.

The study also found that women are more likely than men to use behavior-focused, t(85.48) = 5.04, p < .01, natural reward, t(80.97) = 4.35, p < .01, and constructive thought self- leadership strategies, t(84.45) = 3.13, p < .01. This analysis revealed that there were differences in the general self-leadership, behavior-focused, natural reward, and constructive thought self- leadership scores of men and women in the study sample, and these differences were significant.

Discussion and Future Research

The results of this study indicated that a positive and significant relationship existed between general self-efficacy and natural reward, constructive thought, and general self- leadership strategies. General self-efficacy represents stable, trait-like beliefs (DeRue & Morgeson, 2007), and various experiences of failures or successes in different situations may help to develop these generalized beliefs (Bosscher & Smit, 1998). Natural reward strategies explain intrinsic motivation and how individuals motivate themselves by building enjoyable aspects into their activities (Neck & Houghton, 2006). Constructive thought strategies involve positive ways of thinking (Neck & Houghton; Seligman, 1991). Strong self-leaders with high general self-efficacy may motivate themselves and use positive thinking to reframe experiences so they are better equipped to handle organizational challenges (Jones & Kriflick, 2005).

Social learning theory posits that people influence their own cognition, motivation, and behaviors (Bandura, 1977, 1997; Yun et al., 2006). For the respondents in this study, the self- leadership strategies associated with cognition and motivation were associated with general self- efficacy. General self-efficacy significantly predicts both natural reward strategies associated with motivation and constructive thought strategies associated with cognitive processes. Future researchers may consider whether state-like self-efficacy beliefs would be more likely to influence behavior-focused self-leadership strategies, whereas trait-like general self-efficacy beliefs may be more likely to influence the use of natural reward and constructive thought self- leadership strategies.

The correlation analysis revealed a weak association between general self-efficacy and behavior-focused strategies (r = .17). Only after controlling for gender, age, and tenure did general self-efficacy make a contribution to behavior-focused self-leadership. After controlling for gender, age, and tenure through regression analysis, general self-efficacy significantly contributed to behavior-focused self-leadership (β = .17, t = 2.04, p = .04). Wong-McDonald and Gorsuch (2004) found that people who were intrinsically motivated were less likely to use a self- directing style when compared with people who were extrinsically motivated. While externals displayed a more behavior-focused self-directing style, intrinsically motivated people internalized their beliefs and then lived by them (Wong-McDonald & Gorsuch). Future researchers may consider locus of control as another possible predictor variable that may help further explain the individual differences that influence the use of self-leadership strategies.

The results of this study also indicated that there was a significant difference between the self-leadership scores of men and women. The women in the study scored significantly higher than men. Some researchers suggested that women in leadership may possess a gender advantage over men in the workforce due to their more collaborative and generally more empowering approach to leadership (e.g., Eagly & Carli, 2003). Others (e.g., Vecchio, 2003) questioned claims of gender advantage and suggested that researchers need to increase objectivity and empirical rigor before making claims about gender advantages in leadership. Nevertheless, differences exist between women and men and women constitute “a growing majority in the workforce” (Furst & Reeves, 2008, p. 373). Based on a meta-analysis, Eagly and Johnson (1990) suggested that gender may influence leadership style because they found women were generally more democratic in their leadership style, while men were more autocratic. A study of gender differences and self-leadership was not the focus of this study, but future researchers may consider an intentional examination of gender on self-leadership. Controlling for gender represented one of the strengths of this study. In each of the regression analyses, gender significantly contributed to the regression equation.

The individual was the unit of analysis for this study and the number of participants needed for the study was considered a priori. Power analysis refers to the determination of sample size before conducting a study (Rubin & Babbie, 1989). A rule of thumb for researchers analyzing data using multiple regression analysis is a 20:1 sample size meaning 20 participants for each independent variable. Using this rule of thumb as a guide, there were five predictor variables (gender, age, tenure, need for autonomy, and general self-efficacy) indicating a sample of 100 would be preferred for this study. The significance level for the study was set at .05 with a power of .80; therefore, the minimum R2 that could be found statistically significant with a sample of 100 was .12 (Cohen, 1988). For the present study, 121 respondents participated in the study; therefore, the preferred sample size was exceeded. The sample size represented another strong point or strength of this study.

Limitations of the Study

One potential limitation of the current study was the procedure utilized for selecting participants. Survey respondents were students enrolled in graduate courses during the months of June through August. The sample was not randomly selected. Non-random sampling procedures may threaten internal validity of research studies because there may be unknown confounding variables that influence the participants in the sample (Rubin & Babbie, 1989). Future researchers may be interested in confirming the results of this study with a randomly selected sample.

Another limitation of the study was the collection of the independent and the dependent variables from the same sources using the same method. This raised the issue of common method variance. With this type of research design, the correlation between measures may be attributed to the same-source data rather than a real underlying relationship (Podsakoff & Organ, 1986). In order to address the issue of common method variance, a Harman’s single-factor test (Podsakoff & Organ, 1986) was conducted by performing an exploratory factor analysis on all the variables of the study. Podsakoff et al. (2003) indicated that this single-factor test is a technique widely used for addressing the issue of common method variance. An examination of the unrotated factor structure of the variables was conducted and the single-factor analysis revealed that no single factor accounted for the majority of the covariance. There were 12 factors that emerged with values greater than one, accounting for 74.28% of the variance in the independent and dependent variables. The first factor accounted for 26.05% of the variance. A single factor did not emerge from the factor analysis and one general factor did not account for the majority of the covariance among the measures (Podsakoff et al., 2003); therefore, it did not appear that common method variance represented a problem for this study. Future researchers may attempt to reduce common method variance through research design by collecting data from multiple sources and multiple methods or collecting data from the same subjects at different times (Podsakoff & Organ, 1986).

Conclusion

Changes in the workforce may require some organizations to redefine the work environment (Pascarella, 1984). Some organizations are moving away from top-down, command-and-control leadership to shared leadership (Arnold et al., 2000; Pearce, 2007). Conger and Kanungo (1988) suggested that organizational effectiveness improves when superiors share power and control with subordinates. Yet, sharing power and control requires a change in mindset, relationships and structure in many organizations (Gupta, 2007). These changing environments require employees willing to accept more responsibility and make efforts to improve their individual performance, such as making use of self-leadership strategies.

Organizational environments moving away from traditional management to shared leadership need employees willing to lead themselves. Employees with high general self-efficacy may be more likely to positively impact outcome expectations (Boss & Sims, 2008) and use natural reward and constructive thought self-leadership strategies. The results of this study also revealed women in this sample were more likely than men to use behavior-focused, natural reward, constructive thought, and general self-leadership strategies.

Spiritual Formation

Self-leadership describes people who take personal responsibility, direct their own efforts, motivate themselves, and renew their thinking patterns (Manz & Sims, 1989). In the Scriptures, Christians are exhorted to develop beyond childish ways while remaining childlike. Childish ways may represent an attitude that waits for others to make decisions rather than venture out and make personal choices. 1 Corinthians 13:11 says, “When I was a child, I used to speak like a child, think like a child, reason like a child; when I became a man, I did away with childish things” (NASB). While some may argue that a childlike stance means letting other people take care of the needs of an organization, Christians know that it can be childish to wait for others rather than to take responsibility. Jesus does not encourage people to remain helpless. Maturity requires that people step out into areas that may be new or unknown with trust in God. Being childlike encourages people to remain open to new possibilities and ask big questions. As people step out and gain new skills, their general self-efficacy may also increase. As general self- efficacy beliefs develop and strengthen, people may be more likely to use self-leadership strategies. Self-leaders may also be more likely to adjust to changing conditions and people with general self-efficacy may be willing to consider new ideas and take new paths. In this way, individuals with general self-efficacy and who use self-leadership strategies may be more willing to follow the Lord into new places. Jean-Pierre de Caussade (1986) stated, “God’s action is forever new. It never retraces it steps, but always marks out new paths” (p. 129).

About the Author

Sharon Norris is an instructor of business at Spring Arbor University. She earned a B.A. in management and organizational development and an M.B.A. from Spring Arbor University. She is pursuing a Ph.D. in organizational leadership at Regent University’s School of Global Leadership & Entrepreneurship.

Email: Sharon.Norris@arbor.edu

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The Nathan Factor: The Art of Speaking Truth to Power

Seemingly within today’s organizational cultures, the adage “the truth hurts” has hindered leaders from listening and intimidated followers from articulating. This has ultimately stalled corporations from maximizing their potential. The questions become: Where has the courage to stand up for and to flawed leadership gone? What does scripture have to say about this issue and does the text offer practical applications to the reader? Within this article, such questions are confronted as the life of the prophet Nathan, as recorded in 2 Samuel, is analyzed. This editorial contextually walks with the prophet as he navigates through five critical moments within the text. This journey consequently gleans lessons from this courageous follower and articulates a historical biblical methodology to relevantly speak truth to power in today’s context.

A cursory glance at today’s organizational cultures suggests that various entities are thirsty for personalities that would dare speak the truth to power. Military branches coveted such change agents when the Abu Ghraib prison scandal emerged from the shadows of Baghdad. The people affiliated with various businesses like Enron, retrospectively longed for such a person as they watched stocks crumble before their eyes. After the Challenger exploded, the nation tragically wondered why NASA or the Thiokol engineers did not have the moral vigor to embrace the adage of not being “afraid to challenge the pros, even in their own backyard.”1

The overall intent of this article is to wrestle with the questions: What happens when power disregards truth? Is there a systematic method to speaking truth to power and what happens to both the messenger and the message after truth has been delivered? This deliberation provides an exegesis of five biblical pericopes. First, 2 Samuel 7:1-3 focuses on the probable leadership trait that empowered Nathan to become the next adviser to the king. Second, 2 Samuel 7:4-12 focuses on the driving force of this prophet—spirituality. Third, 2 Samuel 12:1-14 highlights the courageous followership of Nathan and illustrates how he skillfully spoke the truth to power. Fourth, 1 Kings 1:10-14 explores the emotional intelligence of the prophet as he navigated through negative political realities. Fifth, 2 Chronicles 9:29 explores the management capabilities of Nathan that consequently made him a credible asset within the king’s court.

I. The Prelude to the Position

Scholars are baffled over the logistics of how Nathan emerged into the position of being a prophet.2 Some suggest that his political abilities enabled him to succeed Samuel as the next advisor.3 While others speculate that his poetic talent ushered him into prominence.4 Bodner additionally asserts that biblical literature is relatively limited and consequently silent due to the lack of elaboration within the text.5 Aside from the providence of God, perhaps another element may contribute to this dialogue. Consider 2 Samuel 7:1-3:

1 Now when the king was settled in his house, and the LORD had given him rest from all his enemies around him, 2 the king said to the prophet Nathan, “See now, I am living in a house of cedar, but the ark of God stays in a tent.” 3 Nathan said to the king, “Go, do all that you have in mind; for the LORD is with you.”

This portion of scripture introduces Nathan to the reader for the first time during a season when David was enjoying a level of peace and abundant prosperity. Contextually speaking, David had no other advisors after the death of the beloved prophet Samuel (1 Sm 28:3). As such, the role of the consultant to the king was vacant.

The question becomes: How did Nathan secure his position and earn the confidence of the king in such a short span of time? I would contend that the confidence the king had in Nathan was a direct result of this prophet’s nature. Cornwall and Smith assert that biblical “name(s) have meaning. So much so, that sometimes when God changed the nature of a person He also changed his or her name.” For example, the Hebrew root of the name Nathan (ַַתן ָנ) can be transliterated “to give.”6 Harris, Archer, and Waltke suggest that the connotation of ַתן ָנ could range from anything from “physically handing a present, reward, person, or document to another to the less tangible granting or bestowal of blessing, compassion, permission, and the like.”7

I would argue that Nathan epitomized the essence of his name and served (gave of himself) his way into the king’s court. To reiterate, the text does not expound upon the particulars of how Nathan emerged as the king’s advisor but one can formulate a theory based on the Hebrew tradition of a name. For purposes of this article, we will refer to this idea as Nathan’s theory of position. To recap, this theory asserts that Nathan’s giving mannerism or servant nature escorted him into the position of being next to the king.

Contemporary scholarship would categorize both the essence of his name and the attributes thereof as servant leadership. Servant leadership has a noteworthy definition. Greenleaf asserts:

The servant-leader is servant first…….. It begins with the natural feeling that one wants to serve, to serve first. The conscious choice may bring one to aspire to lead. That person is sharply different from one who is leader first, perhaps because of the need to assuage an unusual power drive or acquire material possessions.  The difference manifests itself in the care taken by the servant-first to make sure that other people’s highest priority needs are being served. The best test, and difficult to administer, is this: Do those served grow as persons? Do they, while being served, become healthier, wiser, freer, more autonomous, more likely themselves to become servants? And, what is the effect on the least privileged in society? Will they benefit or at least not be further deprived?8

Spears maintains that servant leadership essentially possesses ten key elements. They include:

  1. Listening receptively to what others have to say
  2. Acceptance of others and having empathy for them
  3. Foresight and intuition
  4. Awareness and perception
  5. Having highly developed powers of persuasion
  6. An ability to conceptualize and to communicate concepts
  7. An ability to exert a healing influence upon individuals and institution
  8. Building community in the workplace
  9. Practicing the art of contemplation
  10. Recognition that servant leadership begins with the desire to change oneself 9

Spears notes, “Once that process has begun, it then becomes possible to practice servant-leadership at an institutional level.”10

The pericope at hand can demonstrate that this man of God displayed the above attributes and further amplifies Nathan’s theory of position. For example, the text shows Nathan listening receptively to David and offering empathy. Verse 1 says, “The king said to the prophet Nathan.” Nathan’s foresight, awareness, ability to persuade, and to communicate concepts as well as his healing influence points toward his title of being a “prophet.” Moreover, his discipline of contemplation and his brokenness are additional traits conducive of walking in the office of a “seer.”11

Maxwell frames this theory of Nathan’s position resulting from servant leadership as the effect of the law of sacrifice. The premise of this construct is “a leader must give up in order to go up.”12 More specifically, one must constantly and unselfishly give (which is the meaning of the name “Nathan”) of oneself to an organization. Moreover, Maxwell asserts, “If leaders have to give up, then they have to give up more to stay up.”13 Perhaps Nathan became the next consultant to the king simply because he was the only one at that time that dared to unselfishly give of himself when his audience was only God?

Nathan’s theory of position can empower the reader with principles on how to receive that promotion and become an advisor to our figurative “kings.” First, we must allow the principles of servant leadership to become a part of our being. So much so that others will rename our style of influence from narcissism to Nathan—one who gives. Narcissism can be defined as “an extreme need for esteem, need for power, weak self-control and indifference to the needs of others.”14 Second, Greenleaf’s sentiments of the servant leader being a servant first must remain in the forefront of our minds. Such a posture may keep us grounded in the fact that ultimately, similar to Nathan, we are serving an audience of one—God. Finally, we must trust that God is faithful to execute his promises to the person that would dare to give. Luke 6:37-3815 articulates it best:

37 Don’t pick on people, jump on their failures, criticize their faults—unless, of course, you want the same treatment. Don’t condemn those who are down; that hardness can boomerang. Be easy on people; you’ll find life a lot easier. 38 Give away your life; you’ll find life given back, but not merely given back—given back with bonus and blessing. Giving, not getting, is the way. Generosity begets generosity.

II. Nathan’s Spirituality in the Workplace

The second critical component of a person that would dare to speak truth to power is spirituality in the workplace. This emerging concept of spirituality in the workplace has a plethora of meanings. Freshman asserts, “Not any one, two or even three things can be said about spirituality in the workplace that would include the universe of explanations.”16 He adds, “There is no one answer to the question, ‘What is spirituality in the workplace?’ Definitions and applications of spirituality in the workplace are unique to individuals. One must be careful not to presuppose otherwise. Therefore when planning any group or organizational intervention around the topic, again the suggestion is made to derive definitions and goals from the participants themselves.”17

Building upon Freshmen’s insight and gleaning from the ensuing pericope, I contend that Ashar and Lane-Maher’s understanding of spirituality in the workplace is applicable. They assert:

Spirituality is an innate and universal search for transcendent meaning in one’s life. In addition, although it can be expressed in various ways, we submit that spirituality at work involves some common behavioral components. Above all, it involves a desire to do purposeful work that serves others and to be part of a principled community. It involves a yearning for connectedness and wholeness that can only be manifested when one is allowed to integrate his or her inner life with one’s professional role in the service of a greater good.18

Moreover, Marques, Dhiman, and King add that workplace spirituality has nineteen distinct traits (which may be evident in the life of Nathan). They include “ethics, truth, believe in God, respect, understanding, openness, honesty, being self-motivated, encouraging creativity, giving to others, trust, kindness, team organization, few organization barriers, a sense of peace, a pleasing workplace, interconnectedness, encouraging diversity and acceptance.”19

Second Samuel 7:4-17 highlights Nathan’s spirituality in the workplace and may demonstrate his sincere desire to be linked to the Holy while operating within his professional role. Observe:

4 But that same night the word of the LORD came to Nathan: 5 “Go and tell my servant David: ‘Thus says the LORD: Are you the one to build me a house to live in? 6 I have not lived in a house since the day I brought up the people of Israel from Egypt to this day, but I have been moving about in a tent and a tabernacle. 7 Wherever I have moved about among all the people of Israel, did I ever speak a word with any of the tribal leaders of Israel, whom I commanded to shepherd my people Israel, saying, “Why have you not built me a house of cedar?”’

8 “Now therefore thus you shall say to my servant David: ‘Thus says the LORD of hosts: I took you from the pasture, from following the sheep to be prince over my people Israel; 9 and I have been with you wherever you went, and have cut off all your enemies from before you; and I will make for you a great name, like the name of the great ones of the earth. 10 And I will appoint a place for my people Israel and will plant them, so that they may live in their own place, and be disturbed no more; and evildoers shall afflict them no more, as formerly, 11 from the time that I appointed judges over my people Israel; and I will give you rest from all your enemies. Moreover the LORD declares to you that the LORD will make you a house. 12 When your days are fulfilled and you lie down with your ancestors, I will raise up your offspring after you, who shall come forth from your body, and I will establish his kingdom. 13 He shall build a house for my name, and I will establish the throne of his kingdom forever. 14 I will be a father to him, and he shall be a son to me. When he commits iniquity, I will punish him with a rod such as mortals use, with blows inflicted by human beings. 15 But I will not take my steadfast love from him, as I took it from Saul, whom I put away from before you. 16 Your house and your kingdom shall be made sure forever before me; your throne shall be established forever.’” 17 In accordance with all these words and with all this vision, Nathan spoke to David.

The above passage dramatizes Nathan’s intimate bond to the Holy. I contend, this relationship that God had with Nathan enabled this prophet to be an effective corporate man. Such spirituality made Nathan teachable, ethical, and more inclined to strive for excellence. Bodner suggests that though the passage under investigation is catered to David, the tone and style of the spiritual message is also directed at Nathan. Additionally, Bodner makes four bold assertions that consequently amplify Nathan’s strong sense of spirituality. He states:

The complexity of this speech in 7:3-16 is designed, among other things, to communicate four points to Nathan. First, the prophet is rebuked for blithely encouraging David “Go, do all that is in your heart; for the LORD is with you.” The rather acerbic edge to the divine words illustrates that the LORD is not pleased with either Nathan or David’s presumption, and unlike the two of them, speaks of “building a house” without any indirection whatsoever. Second, the prophet receives something of a theological education. Eslinger successfully draws attention to the rhetorical subtleties of this passage. However, one could take it a step further and suggest that part of the rhetorical thrust is aimed at educating the prophet. Third, Nathan receives instructions that are minutely specific—even to the point whereby indirect discourse is employed. This is designed to show the prophet how important this message is, and that it is imperative that he deliver it flawlessly. In other words he is being instructed not to tell the king simply to “Go, do all that is in your heart,” but rather to speak in consonance with the divine instruction. Fourth, Nathan the prophet is given insight into the future promises to David’s house.20

Bodner’s observation points toward some critical elements of spirituality. First, the notion of Nathan being “rebuked for blithely encouraging David” possibly points toward this prophet’s ability to be open.21 This facet of openness or transparency can be a catalyst to organizational trust. This intangible element, according to Covey, can effortlessly increase the speed (effectiveness) of an entity and lower overall cost.22 I assert that the ability to be open to receive correction from God is not only a sign of wisdom (Prv 3:11-12) but a critical element in decision making (Prv 3:6).

The idea of Nathan receiving “something of a theological education,” secondly points toward Marques et al. workplace spirituality trait of understanding. According to the Merriam-Webster’s Collegiate Dictionary, understanding can be defined as, “the power of comprehending or the capacity to apprehend general relations of particulars.”23 This trait undeniably empowered the prophet to become relevant and competent in his deliberations. In an era of technology and constant change, it would behoove the person that would serve within the king’s court to commit to the process of lifelong learning.

Thirdly, Nathan demonstrated the spirituality workplace mannerism of the “removal of barriers.”24 This concept can be inclusive of addressing and implementing new systems into an organization for the purposes of process improvement.25 To reiterate, Bodner suggests that “Nathan receives instructions that are minutely specific—even to the point whereby indirect discourse is employed.”26 I would contend that such specific discourse from God to Nathan was a “divine” attempt to implement a system (word from the Lord not an opinionate utterance from the prophet) that would proactively debunk barriers that could potentially hinder organizational productivity.

The fourth spirituality workplace trait of Nathan is the encouragement of creativity. According to the Merriam-Webster’s Collegiate Dictionary, creativity can be defined as, “the quality of being creative or the ability to create.”27 According to Bodner’s exegesis, “the prophet is given insight into the future promises to David’s house.”28 I contend that such an insight enabled both David and Nathan to recast a vision large enough for generations yet to come, to grow. As such, according to Yukl, this construct is essential to corporations if they are to lead followers through change.29

In summary, I argue that Nathan’s fourfold attributes of spirituality in the workplace vested him with a sense of ethical authority. His integrity (as a result of the above spirituality) may have established him to be a person of high corporate creditability. Such creditability empowered both God and David to believe that Nathan was trustworthy enough to be a steward over the deliberations of the team. Perhaps Nathan’s example of workplace spirituality (being transparent, teachable, removing of barriers, and encouraging creativity) can be considered as a new paradigm for cultivating corporate creditability.

III. The Courage to Declare, “You are the man!”

Thus far we have made a case that servant leadership escorted Nathan into power and his spirituality in the workplace gave him a tremendous amount of corporate credibility. Those two leadership constructs set the stage to introduce to the reader the mechanics behind Nathan’s ability to speak truth to power. Within this section of the article, an exegesis of 2 Samuel 12:1-15 is offered, the construct of courageous followership are engaged, key terms are defined (i.e., parable, speaking truth to power), and practical steps to courageously declare to your leader, “You are the man!” are articulated.

Second Samuel 12:1-15 essentially captures what most readers think of when the name Nathan is invoked. Notice his claim to fame:

And the LORD sent Nathan to David. He came to him, and said to him, “There were two men in a certain city, the one rich and the other poor. 2 The rich man had very many flocks and herds; 3 but the poor man had nothing but one little ewe lamb, which he had bought. He brought it up, and it grew up with him and with his children; it used to eat of his meager fare, and drink from his cup, and lie in his bosom, and it was like a daughter to him. 4 Now there came a traveler to the rich man, and he was loath to take one of his own flock or herd to prepare for the wayfarer who had come to him, but he took the poor man’s lamb, and prepared that for the guest who had come to him.”

5 Then David’s anger was greatly kindled against the man. He said to Nathan, “As the LORD lives, the man who has done this deserves to die; 6 he shall restore the lamb fourfold, because he did this thing, and because he had no pity.”

7 Nathan said to David, “You are the man! Thus says the LORD, the God of Israel: I anointed you king over Israel, and I rescued you from the hand of Saul; 8 I gave you your master’s house, and your master’s wives into your bosom, and gave you the house of Israel and of Judah; and if that had been too little, I would have added as much more. 9 Why have you despised the word of the LORD, to do what is evil in his sight? You have struck down Uriah the Hittite with the sword, and have taken his wife to be your wife, and have killed him with the sword of the Ammonites. 10 Now therefore the sword shall never depart from your house, for you have despised me, and have taken the wife of Uriah the Hittite to be your wife. 11 Thus says the LORD: I will raise up trouble against you from within your own house; and I will take your wives before your eyes, and give them to your neighbor, and he shall lie with your wives in the sight of this very sun. 12 For you did it secretly; but I will do this thing before all Israel, and before the sun.”

13 David said to Nathan, “I have sinned against the LORD.” Nathan said to David, “Now the LORD has put away your sin; you shall not die. 14 Nevertheless, because by this deed you have utterly scorned the LORD, the child that is born to you shall die.” 15 Then Nathan went to his house.

I would contend that this pericope essentially has five major components. First, the entrance of Nathan in verse 1, “And the Lord sent Nathan to David.” Second, verses 1b–12 highlight the mechanics of how Nathan confronted David. Third, verse 13a points toward David’s disposition when it says, “David said to Nathan, ‘I have sinned against the Lord.’” Fourth, verse 13b–14 demonstrates Nathan’s ability to engage in process consulting. Finally, verse 15 highlights Nathan’s exit strategy upon speaking truth to power.

Different scholars and practitioners are utilized to define the phrase speaking truth to power. Powell refers to this concept as not being “afraid to challenge the pros, even in their own backyard.”30 Chaleff frames this process simply as the courage to challenge.31 Chaleff further explains that here one “gives voice to the discomfort they feel when the behaviors or policies of the leader or group conflict with their sense of what is right. They are willing to stand up, to stand out, to risk rejection, to initiate conflict in order to examine the actions of the leader and group when appropriate.”32

This article embraces Yulk’s definition of power. He states that “the term power is usually used to describe the absolute capacity of an individual agent to influence the behavior or attitudes of one or more designated target persons at a given point in time.”33 Hence, for the purposes of this article, the term speaking truth to power refers to a person not being afraid to challenge those agents that influence the behavior or attitudes of one or more designated target persons at a given point in time, even in their own backyard.

How to Approach Problematic Power

Often times approaching a powerful person with leadership issues can invoke a creative tension. Scott amplifies this point in writing, “90 percent of workers are afraid to confront the boss. Getting fired isn’t the biggest concern. Instead people worry about being labeled troublemakers, being perceived as not being team players, suffering salary loss or career derailment or damaging future relations with the boss.”34

In light of Scott’s insight, Chaleff asserts that one must find equal footing with the leader if the “approach” is to be received and such stereotypes defused. I define approach as the methodology in which a follower comes into the presence of a leader for the expressed purposes of speaking truth to power. Chaleff explains, “Followers usually cannot match up to a leader’s external qualities, such as the trappings of formal power, and must find their equal footing on intellectual, moral or spiritual ground.”35

The first facet within the genre under investigation illustrates how Nathan acquired equal footing with David. To reiterate, verse 1a indicates, “And the Lord sent Nathan to David.” The term “sent” highlights to the reader how Nathan was able to move past David’s external qualities and make a receivable entrance. According to Enhanced Strong Lexicon, the Hebrew word “sent” ַלחשָׁ [shalach /shaw·lakh/] has several translations, including “to send off or away or out or forth . . . to let go or set free.”36

This notion of sending forth and setting free lays a threefold framework that’s essential to level the playing field between a follower and a leader. First, is divine intervention. Though the text does not specify, I first assert that the Lord was behind the scenes preparing the heart of David for Nathan. This assertion is not made in a vacuum. On the contrary, it’s based on the same Hebrew word “sent.” This term was also used when God commissioned Moses to speak truth to power in Egypt (Ex 3:14). Within that context, God hardened and softened the heart of Pharaoh long before Moses spoke any truth. In like manner, I believe the Lord was turning the heart of David before Nathan even interacted. Proverbs 21:1 supports such logic, “The king’s heart is a stream of water in the hand of the LORD, he turns it wherever he will.”

The second element that must drive a person that would dare to speak truth to power is love. To reiterate, the text indicates that, “And the Lord sent Nathan.” From a Christian’s theological lens, it is understood that God is love (1 Jn 4:8). Thus, one can argue that verse 1a can possibly be interpreted as, “And Love sent Nathan.” Winston contends that the Greek language outlines four forms of love:

The first type of love, eros, is sexual love . . . the second type of love, phileo (is) brotherly love……………………. The third type of love, agape, is a self-sacrificing love that references total commitment even unto death…….. A fourth type of love—agapao love. This Greek word refers to a moral love, doing the right thing at the right time for the right reason.37

Nathan’s agenda was to do the right thing at the right time for the right reason. I argue that the right thing required Nathan to think in a loving manner. This form of love requires one to challenge how one thinks toward others in the workplace. Winston asserts, “Leaders must then think in morally loving terms toward employees before they act.”38 The alternative of not embracing such a paradigm shift is to be motivated by either selfish ambition or hatred.39 This posture of being motivated by selfishness can possibly sabotage the message of the truth teller even before it’s delivered.

The final element that’s essential to the approach of one speaking truth to power is one’s attire. Freeman maintains, “The custom of biblical prophets was to wear the proper clothing. Such clothing identified them to be the spokesperson of the Lord in the tradition of prophets before them.”40 I assert that since Nathan was a prophet, he embraced the same rituals. Bjorseth elaborates upon attire and declares, “A professional image—appearance and behavior—helps start the experience in the right vein since people decide 10 things about you within 10 seconds of seeing you.”41 Bjorseth continues by stating, “What one wears reveals eight things—self-esteem, self- respect, confidence, organizational skills, soundness of judgment, attention to detail, creativity and reliability.”42 It was as if Nathan was aware of Bjorseth’s posture on attire and proactively removed any barriers that may have derailed his message.

All in all, 2 Samuel 12:1a outlined three strategies for approaching power. First, one must make provisions for divine intervention and allow God to prepare the heart of a leader to receive the message. Second, the person that would dare speak truth to power should be motivated by a spirit of love. This mentality can better equip one in the sentiments of Winston, “to do the right thing at the right time for the right reason.”43 Third, it would be advantageous for one to dress for success. This gesture may proactively remove potential barriers that could distract from the message. Nathan embraced such techniques and consequently set the stage for him to wisely declare, “You are the man!”

It’s Not the What, It’s the How

Verses 1b–12 highlight a threefold methodology on how to speak truth to power.

Upon approaching King David, Nathan invoked an innovative way to confront the behavior of his leader. Chaleff refers to such ingenuity as “preparing a leader for feedback.”44 He cautions at this point, however, that:

There is little value in standing up and giving leaders feedback they cannot hear. The courageous follower’s role is to find ways leaders can receive the feedback they need. We can minimize defensiveness by prefacing our feedback with a defusing statement that conveys respect and reminds the leader of the value of honesty.45

Nathan’s technique of minimizing the defensiveness of David was with a parable. Copenhaver asserts, “A parable is a weapon of weakness…….. A parable, however, can get past the defenses of our own behavior and reach the inner court where there is agreement about what is right and what is wrong.”46 Nathan’s parable followed suit and defused the defensiveness of David as well as kept his leader in a position of power.

This notion of preparing the leader for feedback with questions or with a parable made it advantageous for David to connect at an ethical level.47 This second point of setting an atmosphere for the leader in the sentiments of Covey, to first understand, is a critical step before confrontation. David demonstrated he understood Nathan’s parable when he acknowledged with anger in verse 5b-6, “As the LORD lives, the man who has done this deserves to die; he shall restore the lamb fourfold, because he did this thing, and because he had no pity.”

Upon Nathan brilliantly preparing David for feedback with a parable and creating an atmosphere for the leader to understand, Nathan courageously spoke truth to power. Verses 7-12 outline the confrontation process.

7 Nathan said to David, “You are the man! Thus says the LORD, the God of Israel: I anointed you king over Israel, and I rescued you from the hand of Saul; 8 I gave you your master’s house, and your master’s wives into your bosom, and gave you the house of Israel and of Judah; and if that had been too little, I would have added as much more. 9 Why have you despised the word of the LORD, to do what is evil in his sight? You have struck down Uriah the Hittite with the sword, and have taken his wife to be your wife, and have killed him with the sword of the Ammonites.10 Now therefore the sword shall never depart from your house, for you have despised me, and have taken the wife of Uriah the Hittite to be your wife.11 Thus says the LORD: I will raise up trouble against you from within your own house; and I will take your wives before your eyes, and give them to your neighbor, and he shall lie with your wives in the sight of this very sun.12 For you did it secretly; but I will do this thing before all Israel, and before the sun.

The mechanics of speaking truth to power involved several components. First, Nathan helped David to see that he was indeed the source of the problem both in the parable and within his leadership. Second, Nathan specifically outlined the error of David’s ways. Third, Nathan articulated what would happen as a result of David’s poor decision making. Lastly, it must be noted that this entire process occurred privately. Hence, affirming the adage “praise in public and correct in private.”

Creating an Atmosphere for Transformation

This fourfold process of making the leader see that he is the source of the problem, specifically identifying his errors, projecting the consequences of poor decision making, and doing it privately helped David to transform. Verse 13 indicates that after this encounter, “David said to Nathan, ‘I have sinned against the LORD.’” Chaleff rightly states, “Transformation occurs most readily in an atmosphere of ‘tough love’—a genuine appreciation for the person and a steadfast stance against the behaviors that are detrimental to the person and the organization.”48

I assert that the ultimate goal of a person that dares to speak truth to power is not to destroy the person but rather to usher them to a place within themselves to want to change. The fruit of such a broken state is inclusive of taking personal responsibility, changing one’s thinking, righting wrongs, remaining teachable, and becoming accountable to someone else. This fruit can flourish within a garden that’s cultivated by tough love. Such was the case with David upon being confronted by Nathan, the king yielded the fruit of repentance and consequently wrote Psalm 51 as evidence.

The Road to Recovery

Verse 13b–14 reveals three steps to help a remorseful leader move down the road of recovery. Upon David acknowledging his wrong, “Nathan said to David, ‘Now the LORD has put away your sin.’” This portion of scripture first demonstrates the empathy of Nathan. Salvey and Mayer define empathy “as the ability to comprehend another’s feelings and re-experience them oneself.”49 They continue that at this place a person can stay in step with another’s emotions and can facilitate a leader’s growth.50 I argue that without the trait of empathy, Nathan could not have gone any further on the road of recovery with David.

The second point that this text highlights is the importance of offering forgiveness. Elwell argues that forgiveness includes, “Pardon, involving restoration of broken relationships; ceasing to feel resentment for wrongs and offenses. Primarily, forgiveness is an act of God, releasing sinners from judgment and freeing them from the divine penalty of their sin.”51 It was as if Nathan understood that in order for David to move on with his life, he had to experience God’s mercy in the midst of failure. Such mercy is often the hope needed in the sentiments of Maxwell, to motivate a leader to get up, get over it and get going.52

The final lesson one can glean from this portion of text is Nathan’s willingness to participate in the transformation process. Chaleff maintains, “If we wish to help a leader transform, we must ourselves be willing to participate in the process of transformation. We need to examine our own role in the relationship with the leader. That is the only role we potentially have full power to change. We need to notice what we potentially have full power to change.”53

In Nathan’s case, it was as if he fully understood his role and articulated, “you shall not die. Nevertheless, because by this deed you have utterly scorned the LORD, the child that is born to you shall die.” It must be noted that Nathan did not say he was resigning but implied that he was willing to stay with his leader (because he repented) even during dark times. I assert that this willingness to participate in the transformation process is the moral obligation of a follower upon speaking truth to power.

Nathan’s Exit Strategy

The question becomes: What does one do after one speaks truth to power? Verse 15 displays Nathan’s possible methodology, “Then Nathan went to his house.” The text does not indicate what the prophet specifically did once he arrived home or what he may have mused upon. Given the context of the situation, one can only speculate. I would venture to say that Nathan did three things—prayed for David, protected his confidentiality, and pondered how he would coach David through the storm.

First Timothy 2:1-3 indicates the importance of praying for leadership:

First of all, then, I urge that supplications, prayers, intercessions, and thanksgivings be made for everyone, 2 for kings and all who are in high positions, so that we may lead a quiet and peaceable life in all godliness and dignity. 3 This is right and is acceptable in the sight of God our Savior.

Though this is a New Testament principle, it was as if Nathan took this counsel to heart and immediately began to intercede for David. Perhaps the greatest gift one can give to a leader is the commitment to hold them up in prayer.

Second, I argue that Nathan held the confrontation process in strict confidentiality. Nessan defines this concept as, “the act of protecting from disclosure that which has been told under the assumption that it will not be revealed without permission.”54 When a person breaks the seal of confidentiality it can possibly destroy trust, hinder transformation, and marginalize a follower from speaking truth to power in the future.

Lastly, I believe Nathan took the time to ponder how he would coach David through the storm in the days ahead. Yukl indicates:

The primary purpose of executive coaching is to facilitate learning of relevant skills. Coaches also provide advice about how to handle specific challenges, such as implementing a major change, dealing with a difficult boss, or working with people from a different culture. Having a coach provides the unusual opportunity to discuss issues and try out ideas with someone who can understand them and provide helpful, objective feedback and suggestions, while maintaining strict confidentiality.55

Like any skill, one must meticulously think through strategies and plans in order to be effective. Such was the case with Nathan. Upon confronting the king I believe he went home and pondered his next steps.

Overview

Within this section of the article we explored Nathan’s pathway of speaking truth to power. First, the logistics of how to approach problematic authority was delineated. Namely, relying upon divine intervention, being motivated by love, and dressing for the occasion. Second a dialogue was engaged with regard to the mechanics of speaking truth to power. That included indirectly challenging with questions or parables, assuring the leader understands the gist of the questions/parable, and direct confrontation.

Third, it was emphasized that the ultimate goal of truth telling was not to destroy but to create a space for the leader to repent. Fourth, several steps were offered to the reader on how to help a leader recover, including being empathic, offering forgiveness, and being willing to participate in the transformation process. Finally, a threefold exit strategy was outlined—pray for the leader, hold the confrontation process in strict confidentiality, and ponder how one can coach a fallen leader through difficult times.

IV. Nathan’s Emotional Intelligence

First Kings 1:10-14 highlights the fourth undergirding element of a person that would dare speak truth to power—emotional intelligence. Consider the savvy ways of Nathan as he navigates through some problematic realities in verses 10-14:

But he did not invite the prophet Nathan or Benaiah or the warriors or his brother Solomon. 11 Then Nathan said to Bathsheba, Solomon’s mother, “Have you not heard that Adonijah son of Haggith has become king and our lord David does not know it?12 Now therefore come, let me give you advice, so that you may save your own life and the life of your son Solomon.13 Go in at once to King David, and say to him, ‘Did you not, my lord the king, swear to your servant, saying: Your son Solomon shall succeed me as king, and he shall sit on my throne? Why then is Adonijah king?’ 14 Then while you are still there speaking with the king, I will come in after you and confirm your words.”

Contextually speaking, this text places the reader at a moment when King David was old and near death. Adonijah decided to take advantage of the moment and appoint himself the next king without the endorsement of God, King David, or the prophet Nathan. This power play by Adonijah required a response if the organization were to be sustained.

I assert that Nathan’s response was laced with emotional intelligence. Mayer and Salovey suggest, “Emotional intelligence is the ability to perceive emotions, to access and generate emotions so as to assist thought, to understand emotions and emotional knowledge, and to reflectively regulate emotions so as to promote emotional and intellectual growth.”56 Holt and Jones add that emotional intelligence can be measured on the Bar-On Emotional Quotient Inventory. This indicator that was derived based upon nineteen years of research consists of five composite scales:

  1. Intrapersonal scales: Self-regard, emotional self-awareness, assertiveness, independence, self-actualization.
  2. Interpersonal scales: empathy, social responsibility, interpersonal relationships.
  3. Adaptability scales: reality testing, flexibility, problem solving.
  4. Stress management scales: stress tolerance, impulse control.
  5. General mood scales: optimism, happiness.57

I argue that Nathan would have done enormously well on the Bar-On Emotional Quotient Inventory. Verse 10 emphasizes Nathan’s possible intrapersonal disposition when it says, “But he did not invite the prophet Nathan or Benaiah or the warriors or his brother Solomon.” This lack of invitation not only of Nathan but others (i.e., King David, Solomon, others) may have invoked problematic emotions (i.e., anxiety or rejection) within the prophet. Such emotions propelled Nathan to be assertive and respond quickly.

His response outlined in verses 11-14 highlights Nathan’s interpersonal skills, his problem solving abilities, and how he effectively managed the stress of negative politics. First, he immediately found the key stakeholder (Bathsheba) and networked. I believe such networking would have been problematic if Nathan’s interpersonal skills were weak. Second, Nathan demonstrated a keen sense of problem-solving ability when he advised Bathsheba on how to address the king (see verses 13-14). Finally, Nathan maintained an overall demeanor of optimism and projected a strong sense of stress tolerance.

Needless to say, due to Nathan’s emotional intelligence the organization was able to defuse the agenda of a self-centered personality (see verses 28-53) and in the sentiments of Jim Welch, “put the right person in the right job.” As such, it would behoove corporations to abstract principles from Nathan and become more emotionally intelligent. I assert that Goleman was right when he said, “Having great intellectual abilities may make you a superb fiscal analyst or legal scholar, but a highly developed emotional intelligence will make you a candidate for CEO or a brilliant trial lawyer.” In the example of this article, a value added truth teller.

V. Nathan’s Management Skills

Second Chronicles 9:29 draws attention to the final influential component of an individual that would dare speak truth to power. According to Easton, the last biblical appearance of Nathan appears to be assisting David reorganizing public worship.58 The text declares, “And he set the Levites in the house of the LORD with cymbals, with psalteries, and with harps, according to the commandment of David, and of Gad the king’s seer, and Nathan the prophet: for so was the commandment of the LORD by his prophets.”

I believe that this text demonstrates Nathan to be a proficient manager. Kotter states, “Management seeks to produce predictability and order by (1) setting operational goals, establishing action plans with timetables and allocating resources; (2) organizing and staffing (establishing structure, assigning people to jobs); and (3) monitoring results and solving problems.”59 Nathan’s management skills were so proficient that his policies influenced the leadership of the fourteenth reigning King (Hezekiah) of Israel. Moreover, his ability to do things rightly literally wrote him into the history books. Consider 2 Chronicles 2:29a, “Now the rest of the acts of Solomon, first and last, are they not written in the book of Nathan the prophet.”

Based on the text under investigation, I believe that as one’s ability to do the right thing (management skills) elevates 60, so will organizational creditability. This trait possibly handed Nathan a megaphone to not only speak the truth but to influence others long after his era. Maxwell refers to this construct as the law of E.F. Hutton. That is, due to one’s creditability, competency and integrity others stop and listen.61 Without question, Nathan was a manager par excellent.

Fig. 1. The five leadership constructs essential to speaking truth to power: servant-leadership, courageous followership, emotional intelligence, managerial skills, spirituality in the workplace.
Fig. 1. The five leadership constructs essential to speaking truth to power.

XII. Discussion

Figure 1 illustrates the five leadership constructs essential to speaking truth to power. I assert that if one construct is absent or weak, the message will lose its potency. To illustrate, if the element of being a courageous follower were removed, the messenger would be too passive to stand up to a leader. If the component of servant leadership were removed, the messenger would perhaps become too opportunistic and only pursue vain glory. If the element of spirituality were taken away, the messenger would perhaps approach power with the wrong mindset and would potentially seek to destroy the leader as opposed to help. If the aspect of emotional intelligence were weak, the messenger would not necessarily be savvy enough to formulate networks to solve problems. If the messenger lacks strong management skills, the perception of the lack of competence from the leader could compromise the essence of the truth that’s trying to be articulated.

In essence, speaking truth to power is like rolling a wheel with five spokes up a hill. Given the right push and methodology, the wheel will make it to its destination. But if one of the spokes is broken or removed, it will cause the wheel to struggle and fall before it reaches the top. I believe that numerous tragedies have occurred throughout history simply because an element (i.e., courageous followership, spirituality, servant leadership, management, or emotional intelligence) within a messenger was missing or underdeveloped. Nathan’s life teaches us that it’s possible to speak truth to power. But are we willing to pay the price to develop the five constructs enabling us to keep our leaders listening?

VI. Conclusion

The overall intent of this article was to abstract principles from the life of Nathan and struggle with the questions: Is there a systematic method to speaking truth to power and what happens to both the messenger and the message after truth has been delivered? This deliberation provided an exegesis of five biblical pericopes. First, 2 Samuel 7:1-3 focused on the probable leadership trait that empowered Nathan to become the next adviser to the king. Second, 2 Samuel 7:4-12 focused on the spirituality of the prophet and made a case that such a construct formulated his overall deliberations. Third, 2 Samuel 12:1-14 highlighted the courageous followership of Nathan and outlined how he skillfully spoke the truth to power. Fourth, 1 Kings 1:10-14 explored the emotional intelligence of the prophet as he navigated through an array of negative political realities. Fifth and finally, 2 Chronicles 9:29 explored the management capabilities of Nathan that consequently made him a credible asset within the king’s court.

About the Author

Lieutenant Commander Maurice A. Buford is a naval chaplain currently serving at the Marine Corps University at Quantico, VA. In addition to providing pastoral care to the members of this institution, he teaches ethics and leadership. He holds a Doctorate of Ministry, a Master of Divinity from the Interdenominational Theological Center, a Certificate of Advanced Graduate Studies in Human Resource Development from Regent University, and a Bachelor of Science from Tuskegee University. He is currently working on his doctorate in organizational leadership from Regent University. His areas of interest include servant leadership, emotional intelligence, community HRD, and spirituality. Note: The views of this article do not necessarily reflect those of the U.S. military.

Email: MauriceBuford@aol.com

Notes

1 Brainy Quote, “Colin Powell Quotes,” http://www.brainyquote.com/quotes/authors/c/colin_powell.html (accessed April 19, 2007).

2 P. Kyle McCarter, “II Samuel: A New Translation with Introduction, Notes, and Commentary,” in The Anchor Bible (New York: Doubleday, 1984), 210-31.

3 Keith Bodner, “Nathan: Prophet, Politican and Novelist,” Journal for the Study of the Old Testament (2001): 43-54.

4 Ibid.

5 Ibid.

6 Judson Cornwall and Stelman Smith, The Exhaustive Dictionary of Bible Names (Alachua, FL: Bridge- Logos, 1998).

7 R. Laird Harris, Gleason L. Archer, and Bruce K. Waltke, Theological Wordbook of the Old Testament

(Chicago: Moody Press, 1980).

8 Robert K. Greenleaf, “Servant Leadership: A Journey into the Nature of Legitimate Power & Greatness,” In Servant Leadership: A Journey into the Nature of Legitimate Power & Greatness (New York: Paulist Press, 1977), 27.

9 Larry Spears, Servant Leadership: Quest for Caring Leadership. http://www.greenleaf.org/leadership/ read-about-it/articles/Quest-for-Caring-Leadership.html (accessed April 26, 2007).

10 Ibid.

11 Robert Baker Girdlestone, Synonyms of Old Testament (Grand Rapids, MI: W. M. Eerdmans Publishing Company, 1897).

12 John C. Maxwell, The 21 Irrefutable Laws of Leadership (Nashville: Thomas Nelson Publishers, 1998), 190.

13 Ibid., 190.

14 Gary, Yukl, Leadership in Organizations (Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall, 2002). 186.

15 The Message.

16 B. Freshman, “An Exploratory Analysis of Definitions and Applications of Spirituality in the Workplace,”

Journal of Organizational Change Management 12, no. 4 (1999): 318.

17 Ibid., 318.

18 Hanna Ashar and Maureen Lane-Maher, “Success and Spirituality in the New Business Paradigm,”

Journal of Management Inquiry 13, no. 3 (2004): 253.

19 Joan Marques, Satinder Dhiman, and Richard King, “Spirituality in the Workplace: Developing an Integral Model and Comprehensive Definition,” Journal of American Academy of Business 7, no. 1 (2005): 87.

20 Keith Bodner, “Nathan: Prophet, Politican and Novelist?” Journal for the Study of the Old Testament 95 (2001): 46-47.

21 Ibid, 47.

22 Stephen R. Covey, The Speed of Trust (New York: Free Press, 2006).

23 David B. Guralnik, Merriam-Webster’s Collegiate Dictionary (New York, Warner Books, 1987), 147.

24 Gary Yukl, Leadership in Organizations (Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall, 2002).

25 Ibid.

26 Bodner, “Nathan,” 47.

27 Guralnik, Merriam-Webster’s.

28 Bodner, “Nathan,” 47.

29 Yukl, Leadership in Organizations.

30 Brainy Quote, “Collin Powell Quotes.”

31 Ira, Chaleff, The Courageous Follower (San Francisco: Berrett-Koehler Publishers, Inc., 1995).

32 Ibid., 7.

33 Yukl, Leadership in Organizations, 147.

34 Nancy R. Scott, “How to Confront the Boss and Win,” Nancy Rathbun Scott, http://www.nancyscott.com/page50/page33/page33.html

35 Chaleff, The Courageous Follower, 26.

36 James Strong, (1996) The Exhaustive Concordance of the Bible: Showing Every Word of the Text of the Common English Version of the Canonical Books, and Every Occurrence of Each Word in Regular Order (Ontario: Woodside Bible Fellowship, 1996) S. G2384 Electronic ed.

37 Bruce Winston, “Leadership Theory: A Continuum” (PowerPoint presentation, Regent University, Virgina Beach, VA, 2006).

38 Ibid.

39 Ibid.

40 James M. Freeman, The New Manners and Customs of the Bible (Gainsville, FL: Bridge-Logos Publishers, 1984).

41 Lillian D. Bjorseth, “Dress for Success: Creating a Professional Image,” The Sideroad, http://www.sideroad.com/business_attire/dress-for-success.html

42 Ibid.

43 Winston, “Leadership Theory.”

44 Chaleff, The Courageous Follower.

45 Ibid., 681.

46 Martin B Copenhaver, “He Spoke in Parables,” Christian Century (July 13-20, 1994): 681.

47 Ibid.

48 Chaleff, The Courageous Follower, 131.

49 Peter Salvey and John D. Mayer, “Emotional Intelligence,” Imagination, Cognition and Personality 9, no. 3 (1990): 185-211.

50 Ibid.

51 Walter A. Elwell and Philip W. Comfort, Tydale Bible Dictionary (Wheaton, Illinois:Tyndale House Publishers, 2001).

52 John C. Maxwell, Failing Forward (Nashville: Nelson Books, 2000).

53 Chaleff, The Courageous Follower, 129.

54 Craig L. Nessan, “Confidentiality: Sacred Trust and Ethical Quagmine,” Journal of Pastoral Care (1998): 352.

55 Yukl, Leadership in Organizations, 389.

56 John D. Mayer and Peter Salovey, What is Emotional Intelligence? (New York: Basic Books, 1997), 87.

57 Svetlana Holt and Steve Jones, “Emotional Intelligence and Organization Performance,” Performance Improvement 44, no. 10 (November-December 2005): 15.

58 Matthew George Easton, Easton’s Bible Dictionary (Chicago: Libronix, 1998).

59 John P. Kotter, A Force for Change: How Leadership Differs from Management (New York: Free Press, 1990).

60 Yukl, Leadership in Organizations.

61 Maxwell, The 21 Irrefutable Laws.

Literature Review of GLOBE’s CLT: Culturally Endorsed Implicit Leadership Theory

This study provides a beginning step in an exhaustive literature review of articles related to the culturally endorsed implicit leadership theory within the Global Leadership and Organizational Behavior Effectiveness (GLOBE) project from 2008 to 2018. While there are many articles related to the GLOBE project since its inception in 1991 and beginning research in 1994, this study is limited to scholarly and peer-review journal articles available in the Regent University Summon database that specifically cover or use GLOBE’s culturally endorsed implicit leadership theory. Each article is summarized by author, GLOBE project year, study method, cultural and leadership dimensions associated with the culturally endorsed implicit leadership theory, and article highlight. This literature review includes the following observations: (a) researchers in most articles from 2014 to 2018 used GLOBE 2004 because data was reliable, publicly accessible, and the only data available in specific areas; CLT leadership dimensions are effective tools for measuring cross-cultural leadership effectiveness within countries and clusters or across regions; and unlike some other leadership theories, GLOBE’s cultural and CLT leadership dimensions remained relatively unchanged for more than two decades; (b) that although GLOBE defined nine cultural dimensions and six global CLT leadership dimensions, the 21 primary dimensions and 112 leadership attributes are undefined, which was considered ambiguous; (c) that while GLOBE included 62 societies in its 2004 report, it did not contain specific data for each country, or it consolidated data into broad clusters containing dissimilar countries; and finally, (d) that although GLOBE published a report in 2014, researchers in this small sample of articles continued to use GLOBE 2004 data rather than the newer data in GLOBE 2014.

This study begins the first step in an exhaustive literature review of the culturally endorsed implicit leadership theory (CLT) developed under the Global Leadership and Organizational Behavior Effectiveness (GLOBE) project (Dorfman, Javidan, Hanges, Dastmalchian, and House, 2012, p. 504). This literature review covered how researchers in journal articles referred to or used GLOBE’s CLT from 2008 to 2018. After almost two and a half decades of research, GLOBE (sometimes referred to as Project GLOBE, GLOBE project, GLOBE study, or just GLOBE) and the affiliated nonprofit GLOBE Research and Education Foundation were designed to analyze the effectiveness of leadership across cultures, and GLOBE was recognized as one of the largest leadership studies covering numerous societies globally (Dorfman et al., 2012). An internet search of the GLOBE study using Google Scholar produced 1,390,000 results, with some articles cited more than 200 times. A Google Scholar search of culturally endorsed implicit leadership theory revealed over 56,000 results, 221 results when the topic was bounded with quotation marks, and 178 results when delimited with quotation marks and limited to the period of 2008 to 2018. Due to the constraints of this literature review, the scope was limited to scholarly and peer-reviewed journal articles available from 2008 to 2018 in Regent University’s Summon database specifically related to the topic of culturally endorsed implicit leadership theory bounded by quotation marks. Of the 35 articles listed in the Summon database, only 14 accessible articles provided adequate information for the purpose of this study as it relates specifically to GLOBE’s CLT.

GLOBE and CLT Development

Researchers published three GLOBE reports in the form of books from 2004 to 2014. Most studies in this literature review referred to or used the GLOBE report released in 2004. To better understand how researchers drew from and used CLT data and the empirically based theoretical framework produced by GLOBE, the following introduces the development of GLOBE since its inception in 1991.

Robert House initiated the idea of GLOBE in 1991 based on the concept of charismatic leadership (House, Hanges, Javidan, Dorfman, & Gupta, 2004, p. xxi). House concluded that charismatic leadership might have universal application, but finding little empirical studies on the subject, he began designing the GLOBE study without first conducting an exhaustive literature review because it would take a year to complete, and he believed it was not necessary for design development given his extensive background as a social scientist (House et al., 2004, p. xxi). The US Department of Education funded GLOBE in 1993 (House et al., 2004, p. xxii; Koopman, Den Hartog & Konrad 1999, p. 505) and research began with 65 countries in 1994 (House et al., 2004, p. xxii). To help categorize data collection, the final 62 societies were divided into ten clusters: Latin America, Anglo, Latin Europe, Nordic Europe, Germanic Europe, Confucian Asia, Sub-Saharan Africa, Middle-East, Southern Asia, and Eastern Europe (House et al., 2004, p. 201).

Initial research resulted in the identification of nine independent variables of cultural attributes, referred to as cultural dimensions. The nine cultural dimensions are (a) Uncertainty Avoidance; (b) Power Distance; (c) Collectivism I, Institutional Collectivism; (d) Collectivism II, In-Group Collectivism; (e) Gender Egalitarianism; (f) Assertiveness; (g) Future Orientation; (h) Performance Orientation; and (i) Humane Orientation (House et al., 2004, pp. 11-13). House, Hanges, Javidan, Dorfman, and Gupta (2004) define the cultural dimensions as:

  • Uncertainty Avoidance is the extent to which members of an organization or society strive to avoid uncertainty by relying on established social norms, rituals, and bureaucratic practices.
  • Power Distance is the degree to which members of an organization or society expect and agree that power should be stratified and concentrated at higher levels of an organization or government.
  • Collectivism I, Institutional Collectivism, is the degree to which organizational and societal institutional practices encourage and reward collected distribution of resources and collective action.
  • Collectivism II, In-Group Collectivism, is the degree to which individuals expressed pride, loyalty, and cohesiveness in their organizations or families.
  • Gender Egalitarianism is the degree to which an organization or a society minimizes gender role differences while promoting gender equality.
  • Assertiveness is the degree to which individuals in organizations or societies are assertive, confrontational, and aggressive in social relationships.
  • Future Orientation is the degree to which individuals in organizations or societies engage in future-oriented behaviors such as planning, investing in the future, and delaying individual or collective gratification.
  • Performance Orientation is the degree to which an organization or society encourages and rewards group members for performance improvement and excellence.
  • Humane Orientation is the degree to which individuals in organizations or societies encourage and reward individuals for being fair, altruistic, friendly, generous, caring, and kind to others. (pp. 11-13)

Built on the framework of Lord and Maher’s implicit leadership theory (ILT) (Dorfman et al., 2012, p. 505; House et al., 2004, p. 18), researchers developed six global leader behaviors (referred to as leadership dimensions) labeled as culturally endorsed implicit theories of leadership or culturally endorsed implicit leadership theory, both referred to as CLT (House et al., 2004, p. 11). The six CLT leadership dimensions are (a) Charismatic/Value-Based, (b) Team-Oriented, (c) Self-Protective, (d) Participative, (e) Humane-Oriented, and (f) Autonomous (House et al., 2004, p. 137). House et al. (2004) defined CLT leadership dimensions as:

  • Charismatic/Value-Based Leadership. A broadly defined leadership dimension that reflects the ability to inspire, to motivate, and to expect high-performance outcome from others based on firmly held core values.
  • Team-Oriented Leadership. A leadership dimension that emphasizes effective team building and implementation of a common purpose or goal among team members.
  • Participative Leadership. A leadership dimension that reflects the degree to which managers involve others in making and implementing decisions.
  • Humane-Oriented Leadership. A leadership dimension that reflects supportive and considerate leadership but also includes compassion and generosity.
  • Autonomous Leadership. A newly defined leadership dimension that refers to independent and individualistic leadership attributes.
  • Self-Protective Leadership. From a Western perspective, this newly defined leadership behavior focuses on ensuring the safety and security of the individual and group through status enhancement and face-saving. (p. 14)

GLOBE was based on three phases. Phase one consisted of ten years of research from 1994 to 2004 (House et al., 2004, pp. 4, 9). Phase two included a study report published in a 2004 book with over 800 pages of findings and quantitative data from 62 societies, 951 organizations, and 17,000 middle managers (House et al., 2004, pp. 4, 9). Before the completion of phase one, researchers began phase three by studying the effectiveness of cross-cultural leadership at the executive level and the behavior chief executive officers (CEO) had on subordinates (House et al., 2004, pp. 4, 9). Phase three culminated with a report published in a 2014 book with data collected from more than 1,000 CEOs and 5,000 executive leaders in more than 1,000 corporations in 24 countries (House, Dorfman, Javidan, Hanges, & de Luque, 2014, p. xix). Before completion of phase three, GLOBE released a second book in 2007 (House et al., 2014, p. 7). For brevity, the three GLOBE books in this study are referred to as GLOBE 2004, GLOBE 2007, and GLOBE 2014. While GLOBE 2004 was structured around the nine cultural dimensions, GLOBE 2007 focused on “country-specific analysis of cultural values, practices, and leadership expectorations” (House et al., 2014, p. 7). House, Dorfman, Javidan, Hanges, and de Luque (2014) slightly modified the nine GLOBE 2014 cultural dimensions to (a) Performance Orientation, (b) Assertiveness, (c) Future Orientation, (d) Humane Orientation, (e) Institutional Collectivism, (f) In-Group Collectivism, (g) Gender Egalitarianism, (h) Power Distance, and (i) Uncertainty Avoidance (p. 7) (see Table 1). The CLT leadership dimensions remained the same in GLOBE 2014 (House et al., 2014, p. 368). Another change from GLOBE 2004 to GLOBE 2014 was the definition of leadership. In GLOBE 2004, “Leadership was defined as the ability to motivate, influence, and enable individuals to contribute to the objectives of organizations of which they are members” (House et al., 2004, p. xxii). In GLOBE 2014, leadership was defined as “the ability of an individual to influence, motivate, and enable others to contribute toward the effectiveness and success of the organizations of which they are members” (House et al., 2014, p. 17).

Table 1: GLOBE 2004 and 2014 Cultural Dimensions and CLT Leadership Dimensions

2004 Cultural Dimensions2014 Cultural Dimensions2004 & 2014 CLT Leadership Dimensions
Performance OrientationPerformance OrientationCharismatic/Value-Based
AssertivenessAssertivenessTeam-Orientated
Future OrientationFuture OrientationSelf-Protective
Humane OrientationHumane OrientationParticipative
Collectivism I, Institutional CollectivismInstitutional CollectivismHumane-Orientated
Collectivism II, In-group CollectivismIn-Group CollectivismAutonomous
Gender EgalitarianismGender Egalitarianism
Power DistancePower Distance
Uncertainty AvoidanceUncertainty Avoidance
Note. The 2004 Cultural Dimensions and 2014 Cultural Dimensions columns provide a comparison of GLOBE’s cultural dimensions. The 2004 & 2014 CLT Leadership Dimensions column represents the six leadership dimensions that remained unchanged

Scholarly Review

Table 2 below is used to summarize key aspects of how researchers in journal articles from 2008 to 2018 referred to or used GLOBE’s CLT leadership dimensions. Articles are arranged chronologically by year to reveal progression, development, and evolution in the use of GLOBE studies. A summary of the article is provided to give a broad overview of how researchers used GLOBE studies and CLT, exposing benefits, gaps, and weaknesses observed or noted in the articles. These benefits, gaps, and weaknesses are discussed in detail in the next section of this study.

GLOBE CLT Leadership Behavior Articles from 2008-2018

2009
Author(s)GLOBE Project/Study Method(s)Cultural and CLT DimensionsSummary
Grisham (2009)GLOBE 2004NoneIn a non-GLOBE related study, Grisham adopted GLOBE’s use of a seven-point Likert scale as a method to test “complex and multifaceted topic” because the scale used in the GLOBE study provided “more latitude and nuance in a qualitative survey” (p. 121).
2011
Wanasika,
Howell, Littrell,
and Dorfman (2011)		GLOBE 2004 /
Managerial
leadership study using GLOBE qualitative data		All cultural and
CLT leadership
dimensions		A managerial leadership study of culture in
Sub-Saharan Africa used extensive data from
all of GLOBE 2004’s cultural and CLT leadership dimensions as a basis for analysis. The study revealed a high level of humane- oriented leadership.
Festing and
Maletzky (2011)		GLOBE 2004 /
Theoretical leadership framework development		Power distance
cultural dimension and CLT framework		The cross-cultural adjustment study used
GLOBE 2004 CLT with another theory to build a theoretical framework for a cross- cultural leadership adjustment. This was proposed because CLT focused on leadership styles whereby one entity or the other was required to make a change toward culturally accepted norms or accepted values.
2012
Kabasakal,
Dastmalchian,
Karacay, and Bayraktar (2012)		GLOBE 2004 /
Analysis of data
from GLOBE report		All cultural and
CLT leadership
dimensions		In the absence of data from other sources,
the study used data collected from GLOBE
2004 to analyze leadership and culture in the Middle East and North Africa.
Dorfman,
Javidan,
Hanges, Dastmalchian, and House (2012)		GLOBE 2004
and GLOBE
2007 / Summary of GLOBE
milestones		All cultural and
CLT leadership
dimensions		The journal article summarized all the
information researchers had learned through
GLOBE up to 2012. The article included development of the GLOBE project to date, definitions and explanations of the six global CLT leadership dimensions, listing of the 21 primary CLT leadership dimensions, relevance of the nine cultural dimensions, identification of the ten culture clusters with associated countries, and the objective for GLOBE phase three, which was anticipated for publication in 2012, but was not available until 2014.
2013
Muenich and
Williams (2013)		GLOBE 2004 /
University leadership courses comparison and assessment		Charismatic
leadership dimensions and 22 leader attributes		The article focused on the increased
importance of cross-cultural leadership in international organizations, which led to a comparison of Texas A&M University’s leadership program with GLOBE’ CLT leadership dimensions and attributes since, according to the article, GLOBE CLT leadership attributes are universally accepted. The study concluded Texas A&M faculty was developing cross-cultural leaders. A weakness noted in the article is the lack of clear definitions of leadership attributes in GLOBE 2004, and the charismatic/value-based leadership dimension may not be the most effective method within every society.
Lang, Szabo,
Catana,
Konecná, and
Skálová (2013)		GLOBE 2004 /
Quantitative
analysis testing
leadership hypotheses		All cultural
dimensions, and
all CLT
leadership dimensions, with a focus on participative leadership		Using data from GLOBE 2004, the study
offered a comparison between all cultural
and CLT leadership dimensions and
attributes for Central and Eastern European students in their role as future leaders.
Researchers concluded students’ profiles matched the participatory attributes of middle managers in their respective countries.
2015
Bullough and
de Luque
(2015)		GLOBE 2004 /
Regression
analysis testing GLOBE CLT
leadership dimensions		Performance
orientation,
gender egalitarianism, and power distance cultural dimensions, and all CLT leadership dimension except humane-oriented		Researchers used regression analysis to test
CLT leadership dimensions for a predictor of
women’s participation in political and entrepreneurial leadership. Researchers concluded charismatic/value-based and self- protective CLT leadership dimensions were the most relevant.
Bauer (2015)GLOBE 2004 /
Quantitative comparison of leadership		Performance orientation, humane orientation, power distance, and uncertainty avoidance
cultural dimensions and all CLT leadership dimensions		The researcher used GLOBE 2004 as an empirical base to identify and measure leadership dimensions in Slovak organizations, with a charismatic leadership dimension being the most effective.
Balabanova, Efendiev, Ehrnrooth, and Koveshnikov (2015)GLOBE 2004 /
Factor analysis and cluster analysis to examine management styles		NoneResearchers noted GLOBE CLT was too generalized geographically across societies for it to be useful for expatriates to understand fundamental cultural differences at the national level, specifically in contemporary Russia. Researchers also noted intra-cultural variations had been ignored in international cross-cultural leadership studies.
2016
Stanfill,
Villarreal,
Medina, Esquivel, de la Rosa, and Duncan (2016)		GLOBE 2004 /
Country-level
analysis		All CLT
leadership
dimensions and 18 second-order CLT leadership factors		The article contained comparative research
between corruption and culture in Latin
America using data from GLOBE 2004, with self-protection contributing to higher perceptions of corruption.
Stephan and
Pathak (2016)		GLOBE 2004 /
Data analysis and comparison		Unnecessary
avoidance and in- group collectivism cultural dimensions and all CLT leadership dimensions		Researchers used data from GLOBE 2004 to
measure the relationship between charismatic and self-protective CLT leadership dimensions, uncertainty avoidance and in-group collectivism cultural dimensions, and individual entrepreneurship. They concluded CLT leadership dimensions have a strong effect on individual entrepreneurship.
Note. The Author column represents article authors listed in chronological orders by year. The GLOBE Project / Study Method(s) column indicates articles that used GLOBE 2004, GLOBE 2007, or GLOBE 2014. The column also included the study method or methods used in the article. The Cultural and CLT Dimension column identifies the nine cultural dimensions and six CLT leadership dimensions used in the article. The Summary column contains a brief overview of how researchers used aspects of GLOBE’s cultural and CLT leadership dimensions in their articles.

Literature Review Analysis

Consistent Benchmark

Despite the magnitude of research related to the GLOBE studies since its inception in 1991 and almost two and a half decades since research began in 1994, unlike many other leadership theories, applications, and practices, GLOBE has been systematically managed and controlled by a limited number of primary scholars led by Robert House (Dorfman et al., 2012; House et al., 2004; House et al., 2014). Other organizational leadership theories, such as servant leadership, are not centrally controlled, and therefore, evolve and branch out into an extensive range of loosely related theories, applications, and practices with various and sometimes contradicting terms and definitions. To make a point, Greenleaf coined the term servant as leader with leaders wanting to serve others by putting their highest priority needs first, without specifying whether others were followers, subordinates, superordinate, of other leaders (Greenleaf, Frick, & Spears, 1996, pp. 1-2). Spears, who worked with Greenleaf, further developed servant leadership by defining ten characteristics of the servant-leader (Greenleaf, Beazley, Beggs, & Spears, 2003, pp. 16-19). However, over a period of almost five decades since its inception, scholars have changed the servant leadership premise to putting followers first and made significant changes to Spears’ ten characteristics to the point that servant leadership is no longer a single cohesive concept or theory, and it has relatively few empirical studies to support it (Northouse, 2016; Yukl, 2013). GLOBE, on the other hand, is relatively consistent in concept, and GLOBE researchers have made empirical data, spanning decades from more than sixty societies globally, publicly available. Research results from this literature review indicate that researchers are willing to use data from GLOBE studies and apply cultural and CLT leadership dimension to their studies or use them as benchmarks for comparison.

For example, Wanasika, Howell, Littrell, and Dorfman (2011) used extensive data from all of GLOBE 2004’s cultural and CLT leadership dimensions as a basis for analysis of a managerial leadership study of culture in Sub-Saharan Africa. Citing that management and leadership studies and data was scarce for Sub-Saharan Africa, specifically Nigeria, Namibia, Zambia, Zimbabwe, and South Africa, Wanasika et al. relied on data from GLOBE’s cultural and CLT leadership dimensions for comparison and evaluation.

Additionally, other available studies were based on Western theories and did not account for the regional social, cultural, and political differences (Wanasika, Howell, Littrell, & Dorfman, 2011). Wanasika et al. used GLOBE’s quantitative measures and CLT’s cultural dimensions collected from 818 mid-level managers in 263 entities for the five countries. Using GLOBE’s leadership theory and publicly available data, Wanasika et al. had tools to conduct their study more effectively.

Kabasakal, Dastmalchian, Karacay, and Bayraktar’s (2012) study is another example of research conducted in a region where previous studies and data were sparse.

Kabasakal et al. identified effective leadership and managerial practice in the Middle East and North Africa as a way to better prepare global leaders working in Egypt, Iran, Israel, Kuwait, Morocco, Turkey, and Qatar. However, when Kabasakal et al. recognized this region was under-researched, they looked toward GLOBE, with its unique empirical based theory and comprehensive leadership research study, to expose differences and similarities between country, regional, and global leadership attributes.

While some studies relied on GLOBE for a theoretical framework with extensive and unique data collected from diverse societies globally, other studies emulated GLOBE’s scientific procedures. For example, since GLOBE researchers used a seven-point Likert scale to measure CLTs with acceptable accuracy, Grisham (2009) adopted the scale for a research project designed to test multifaceted and complex research topics (p. 121). However, unlike previous article examples, Grisham did not use GLOBE’s data or CLT leadership dimensions in the study. Similarly, Festing and Maletzky (2011) used GLOBE 2004 CLT leadership dimensions in conjunction with another theory to build a theoretical framework for a cross-cultural adjustment study.

Ambiguity and Inconsistency

As with any complex and far-reaching concept developed and evolved over decades, Muenich and Williams (2013) noted GLOBE 2004 lacked clear definitions of leadership attributes, and the charismatic/value-based leadership dimension may not be the most effective method within every society. Muenich and Williams, while observing increased importance in cross-cultural leadership in international organizations, conducted a study to compare Texas A&M University’s leadership program with GLOBE’s CLT leadership dimensions and attributes. Their study focused on the charismatic leadership dimension and 22 leader attributes because GLOBE’s CLT leadership dimensions and attributes were universally accepted (Muenich & Williams, 2013). Satisfied with the outcome of their study, Muenich and Williams observed ambiguity with the CLT leadership attributes. They stated, “The GLOBE study does not provide a clear definition for these attributes. Thus, there is not a universal standard for researchers to use when referencing the universally endorsed results of the GLOBE study” (Muenich & Williams, 2013, p. 49). House et al. (2014) developed CLT leadership dimensions by generating 112 attributes and then grouping them into 21 primary dimensions to produce six second level global CLT leadership dimensions (p. 19). House et al. defined the six global leadership dimensions but did not define or explain the 21 primary leadership dimensions and the 112 leadership attributes, which may have led to a perception of ambiguity. Additionally, GLOBE researchers are inconsistent with the CLT abbreviation. Throughout GLOBE 2004 and 2014, they referred to CLT as culturally endorsed implicit theories of leadership and culturally endorsed leadership theory. In some cases, this may lead to further ambiguity when researchers attempt to apply different aspects of CLT as a system of related and independent theories or apply CLT as a single cohesive and universal cross-cultural leadership theory (House et al., 2004; House et al., 2014).

Geographical Limitations

Although GLOBE 2004 included 62 societies divided into ten regional clusters with input from 17,000 middle managers in 951 organizations (House et al., 2004), it may not be the most effective method in every culture (Muenich & Williams, 2013, p. 49). More specifically, Balabanova, Efendiev, Ehrnrooth, and Koveshnikov (2015) noted that GLOBE’s CLT was too generalized geographically across societies for it to be useful for expatriates to understand fundamental cultural differences at the national level, specifically within Russia. GLOBE included Russia in the Eastern Europe cluster with other very diverse countries, such as Albania, Greece, Hungry, Kazakhstan, and Slovenia to name a few (House et al., 2004, p. 191). With such diverse societies and cultures within the Eastern Europe cluster, managerial methods in contemporary Russia were not independently addressed in GLOBE 2004 (Balabanova, Efendiev, Ehrnrooth, & Koveshnikov, 2015). Although GLOBE offered a fundamental understanding of cultural differences, intra-cultural and within-country variations have been ignored by international cross-cultural leadership studies (Balabanova et al., 2015).

GLOBE 2004 and GLOBE 2014

Only one article, a 20-year overview of GLOBE research by Dorfman, Javidan, Hanges, Dastmalchian, and House (2012), used or referred to GLOBE 2014 (p. 504). The articles in this study published after GLOBE 2014 continued to use GLOBE 2004 CLT and data, although the data was collected between 1994 and 2004 and may have been considered obsolete. Two observations are offered regarding this phenomenon. First, although the data collected and analyzed in GLOBE 2004 was relatively old, it was still relevant, and it was the only reliable and relevant data available, as in the case of Wanasika et al. (2011) and Kabasakal et al. (2012) for example. In both cases, the researchers concluded that GLOBE 2004 CLT was relevant and accurate for measuring cross-cultural leadership in wide and sometimes under-researched regions and societies of the world (Kabasakal et al., 2012; Wanasika et al., 2011). Second, GLOBE 2004 researchers focused on mid-level management and collected significantly more data in more societies in comparison to GLOBE 2014, which focused on senior-level executives and CEOs (Dorfman et al., 2012; House et al., 2014). Hence, GLOBE 2004 offered more data from more societies compared to GLOBE 2014.

Conclusion

This literature review analysis revealed that: (a) researchers in most articles from 2014 to 2018 used GLOBE 2004 because data was reliable, publicly accessible, and the only data available in specific areas; CLT leadership dimensions are effective tools for measuring cross-cultural leadership effectiveness within countries and clusters or across regions; and unlike some other leadership theories, GLOBE’s cultural and CLT leadership dimensions remained relatively unchanged for more than two decades; (b) that although GLOBE defined nine cultural dimensions and six global CLT leadership dimensions, the 21 primary dimensions and 112 leadership attributes are undefined, which was considered ambiguous; (c) that while GLOBE included 62 societies in its 2004 report, it did not contain specific data for each country, or it consolidated data into broad clusters containing dissimilar countries; and finally, (d) that although GLOBE published a report in 2014, researchers in this small sample of articles continued to use GLOBE 2004 data rather than the newer data in GLOBE 2014.

About the Author

Brian Moore is a first-year Ph.D. student at Regent University, where he is studying organizational leadership. He is a US Navy veteran with 28 years of service in special operations and foreign affairs.

Correspondence concerning this article should be addressed to Brian Moore at briamoo@mail.regent.edu.

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