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Examining Dark Side Leadership and Impression Management of King David: A Social

Abstract

This exposition serves as a biblical foundation toward future theoretical development regarding the variables of impression management and dark side leadership within assumed morally charged public leadership roles such as those serving in religious and/or political contexts. In recent years, there have been numerous reports of the drastic measures these types of leaders exude in response to moral failings and the general mistrust of the public toward these types of leaders in response to such incidences. The present exegetical analysis explores 2 Samuel 11 through social–culture texture analysis. Using an exegetical methodology offered the opportunity to thoroughly examine the intersection between biblical exegesis and organizational theory, particularly dark side leadership and impression management as presented in 2 Samuel 11—a prevalent biblical narrative where King David, a beloved yet flawed leader, is a featured character. This study is significant because there exists a plethora of recent research on dark side leadership; however, there is not much directly relating impression management techniques to this phenomenon nor is there research that makes the connection between dark side leadership and a classically adored biblical leader, until this discourse. The researcher determined that in the narrative of 2 Samuel 11, King David exhibits dark side leadership; in attempts to hide the consequence of his indiscretion, he used extreme impression management tactics. This research narrows the gap between organizational leadership theory and a narrative of biblical leadership while providing multiple opportunities for future research.

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The Love-Empowered Leader: A Qualitative Case Study of a Pastoral Leadership Exemplar of an Evangelical Congregation in Virginia

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The construct of love is under investigation in this empirical qualitative case study. Love is a powerful force and thus can change landscapes. The landscapes under investigation in the study are in the domain of leadership. This is a study of a case exemplar, who demonstrates the practice and presence of love in lived experience. In this case study, love is presented from multiple perspectives so as to direct contemporary leaders to the consideration of a love-centered approach to leadership. The literature has revealed that leadership theory and praxis can be positively impacted by a strong love-empowered leadership approach. The empirical research in the study presents findings that are noteworthy in the modern application of contemporary leadership theory, as well as inspire paradigm shifts in how leadership in viewed from a leadership and organizational effectiveness perspective. Although there have been studies recently that have emphasized the need for love in leadership, not as much study has focused on how love is operationalized, how love can be the motivating factor behind a leader’s reason to lead, how love positively influences members of an organization, and the beneficial organizational consequences of a love-centered approach to leadership. Therefore, this study explored these elements further and presents finding that can contribute to an operational definition of love in leadership based on the sacred text of 1 Corinthians 13. A greater understanding of love as a viable construct in leadership was investigated through the presence and practice of love expressed in lived experience. This study sought to extend the scholarship and empirical research on the construct of love in organizational leadership.

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The Effects of the Empowering Role of Followers on Leaders: A Phenomenological Perspective

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Leadership and followership are interdependent phenomena; nevertheless, most of the past literature has focused on the critical role of the leader. Because of the changing landscape of the world and its economy as a result of globalization and evolving technology, scholars and practitioners have started to focus on the valuable role that followers play in achieving organizational objectives. Scholars such as Kelley (1988) and Chaleff (1995) were pioneers in the study of followership, emphasizing the mutual and complementary role of leaders and followers. Empowerment is an area in which these reciprocal roles manifest. While several scholars have focused on how leaders empower followers (Conger & Kanungo, 1988; Manz, 1992; Spreitzer, 1996; Thomas & Velthouse, 1990), little work has been conducted on how followers empower leaders. To address this gap in the literature, a qualitative phenomenological study was conducted to answer the question: How do followers empower leaders? The participants were assigned to six focus groups consisting of a leader and a follower from different organizations and diverse backgrounds in the Commonwealth of Virginia using the models proposed by Kelley (1988, 1992) and Chaleff, which highlighted components such as critical thinking, active engagement, the courage to challenge, participate in transformation, and take moral action. The perspectives of both the leader and the follower were considered. In-depth questions were formulated from literature to discover how followers possessing the characteristics of effective and courageous followership proposed by Kelley (1988) and Chaleff empowered leaders. Bracketing and triangulation were used to analyze data and to ensure validation and credibility. The findings revealed that leaders were empowered when effective and courageous followers demonstrated skills and qualities such as decision making and leadership, mindfulness, competence, commitment, conflict management, respect, communication, creativity, integrity, mindfulness, and being proactive and relational. When these attributes are utilized daily, it allows the leader to be more productive and focus on other priorities.

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Towards a Theory of Leadership for Human Flourishing in a Global Community: A Hermeneutic, Phenomenological, and Process Theory Exploration of the Leadership of Jesus in the Four Gospels

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Leadership as influence is at the root of most understandings of the phenomenon (Northouse, 2013; Yukl, 2006). Yet the myriad targets and means of influence at the individual, group/team, and social/collective levels give rise to competing values and theories of change (Cameron & Quinn, 2011; J. D. Hunter, 2006; Richter, 2011). There is, however, one common denominator of leadership change–influence that can focus all theories of change and strategies of hope. This one denominator is evident in the leadership of the life of the founder and followers of perhaps the most successful global movement the world has ever seen. Hoksbergen, Curry, and Kuperus (2009) claimed, “No question is more important for our time than what brings about human flourishing in a global community” (p. 11). Then-United Nations Secretary General Ban (2008) said the real global crisis was not a crisis of intractable problems but a crisis of global leadership. To bridge that gap, this study examined the leadership of Jesus of Nazareth in first-century Palestine with a view to developing a theory of leadership for human flourishing in global community. A comprehensive research methodology was crafted from the fields of phenomenology, process theory, and biblical hermeneutics and applied to the narrative texts of the four Christian Gospels. A three-dimensional leadership theory emerged from this study of the life work of Jesus. Following Ricouer’s (1976) phenomenological approach, three passes were made through the Gospels data set. Over 1,100 initially coded themes and patterns were synthesized through examination of recorded events as the central unit of qualitative analysis. Eleven core themes emerged leading to three macrocategories that, upon further study, became the three major leadership dimensions of the proposed theory. With an eye to theory building from the start, Whetten’s (2002) modeling as theory building methodology and the filtering questions of “‘what’s’-as-constructs” (p. 51) and “‘how’s’-as-relationships” (p. 55) further clarified the three leadership dimensions of people, process, and place as central to Jesus’ leadership and human flourishing in a global community. Pike’s (1982) tagmemic linguistic theory helped crystalize understanding of how the same things can be understood from different perspectives as particle, wave, and field. This study concluded by presenting and explicating the middle range theory called three-dimensional leadership theory. Support for the proposed theory was found in contemporary organizational leadership and philosophical and scholarly research leading to 11 supporting propositions. This study contributes to the field of leadership research by offering the first-ever leadership theory premised on the life of Jesus, who is generally accepted as one of the world’s greatest leaders (Lowney, 2003; Stark, 1997, 2006; Willard, 1997). This research also bridges a gap in biblical study by offering a blended methodology that allows other tools to combine with traditional hermeneutics of the narrative text to elicit process. Three-dimensional leadership theory is generalizable to contexts in the global community where leadership is required to raise people to new levels of flourishing, wholeness, and fruitfulness for their own good and the good of others.

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Examining the Relationship Between Entrepreneurial Orientation and Organizational Performance: The Moderating Role of Organizational Learning

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Although literature has highlighted the importance of entrepreneurial orientation (EO) in stimulating the general economic development and performance and survival of individual organizations, research on the degree to which EO is related to organizational performance (OP) suffers from the following problems: (a) it has provided inconsistent results, (b) researchers have generally ignored calls for research that investigates how characteristics internal to the organization moderate this relationship, and (c) there is a general lack of research on how EO affects OP in developing countries. The current study examined the relationship between EO and OP as moderated by organizational learning (OL) with the intention of providing quantified answers to the following two research questions: Does EO positively influence OP? Does OL moderate the relationship between EO and OP? I drew on the resource-based view theory to examine this relationship. I collected survey data from 298 selected Tanzanian organizations from a variety of industries as represented by their senior managers using previously validated instruments. I used a series of moderated hierarchical multiple regression analyses to test the study’s hypotheses. I found no evidence to support the generally held belief that EO is universally beneficial to OP; rather, I found evidence to suggest that the relationship between EO and OP is much more complicated than it is generally assumed, and that under certain circumstances, the five EO dimensions may vary independently, implying that entrepreneurial activity or processes could sometimes lead to desirable results on one performance dimension and undesirable results on a different performance dimension. I found evidence to suggest that different OL dimensions may have different moderating effects on the relationship between the different EO and OP dimensions. I discuss the theoretical and practical implications of this study and recommend areas for future research.

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How Ecclesiological Values Influence Leadership Construction and Leader-Follower Alignment: A Heuristic Inquiry

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This research sought to determine whether ecclesiological values influenced leadership construction and leader–follower alignment within an ecclesial setting. The study was a heuristic inquiry, which calls for in-depth interviews with individuals connected to a community as well as the insights that can be useful from the experience of the primary researcher. The interviewees were members of Church of the Holy Apostles—a local ecclesial community comprised of Episcopalian and Roman Catholic Christians in Virginia Beach, Virginia. Of the eight individuals selected by the two senior members of the church, seven elected to participate. The in-depth interviews sought to determine whether there are ecclesiological values that are held in common by the members. Four values were found to be most commonly held amongst the members, including a respect for tradition, a sense of urgency, humility, and unity. From the data compiled in the interviews, the researcher discovered that these values play an influential role in how the members at Holy Apostles understand leadership construction as well as how well they align with their various leaders. Future research ought to include the study of a similar ecclesial organization, such as the Church of the Holy Sepulchre in Jerusalem, interreligious organizations such as UNICEF, communities that experience the coexistence of citizens who follow different faiths, as well as nonreligious organizations.

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Examining the Relationship of Follower Perceptions of Leaders

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The philosophy of servant leadership differentiates servant leaders as those who put the well-being of those served in the larger society as their highest priority. Servant leadership behaviors are manifestations of inner-directed choices that compel one to want to serve first as opposed to leaders who may desire to exercise power and accumulate wealth through their leadership positions. This study employed a quantitative design to examine follower perceptions of the relationship between servant leadership and leader immunity to corruption expressed as corruption propensity. A structured questionnaire was distributed to 135 followers of leaders working in organizations within the city of Nairobi, Kenya. Furthermore, the inquiry sought to establish whether leader–member exchange (LMX) had a moderating effect on the relationship between followers’ perceptions of their leaders’ servant leadership and leader immunity to corruption. The results of the study confirm that a statistically significant relationship exists between followers’ perceptions of their leader’s servant leadership behaviors and leader immunity to corruption. However, the study found that LMX does not strongly influence the strength of the relationship between perceived servant leadership and leader immunity to corruption as a positive relationship was found only in two of the seven dimensions of servant leadership studied. The study proposes to advance the theory of leadership in general and servant leadership in particular in relation to enhancing the understanding of the role of leadership in curbing corruption in organizations in diverse contexts. Theoretical and practical implications and suggestions for future research are discussed.

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Epistemic Motivation and Actively Open-Minded Thinking

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The rise of globalization has resulted in an organizational atmosphere that has been described as volatile, uncertain, complex, and ambiguous (VUCA; Horney, Pasmore, & O’Shea, 2010). The increasingly VUCA environment present in the 21st century has served as a catalyst for the emergence of the concept of innovation as a vital element of organizational success. Many scholars have argued that innovation is a key component of organizational success (Amabile, 1988; De Dreu, 2006; Hammond, Neff, Farr, Schwall, & Zhao, 2011), and “organizations benefit by knowing who is most likely to suggest and implement new ideas and what conditions best foster these processes” (Hammond et al., 2011, p. 99). However, despite the interest in innovative behavior, C. H. Wu, Parker, and De Jong (2014) argued that “to date, we know relatively little about how dispositional and contextual aspects might work together” (p. 1512). The current study utilized an interactionist approach to answer the questions of “who is most likely to suggest and implement new ideas and what conditions best foster these processes” (Hammond et al., 2011, p. 99) and examined both dispositional and contextual aspects. It also examined the cognitive dispositions of epistemic motivation and actively open-minded thinking and their impact on individual innovative behavior as a way to identify who is most likely to suggest and implement new ideas while also considering whether the contextual aspect of the leader’s tolerance for disagreement moderates the relationship between these two cognitive dispositions and innovative behavior. Six hypotheses were generated to test these relationships. The study findings support the idea that epistemic motivation and actively open-minded thinking are positively linked to individual innovative behavior but have mixed results on the role of a leader’s tolerance for disagreement as a moderator of this relationship.

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The Influence of Authentic Leadership Dimensions on Organizational Commitment and Follower Job Performance of Romanian IT Workers: The Mediating Role of Trust

Abstract

Authentic leadership represents a values-based approach focused on the development of both leaders and followers (Avolio & Gardner, 2005; Gardner, Cogliser, Davis, & Dickens, 2011). Authentic leadership is characterized by self-awareness, relational transparency, internalized moral perspective, and balanced processing (Walumbwa, Avolio, Gardner, Wernsing, & Peterson, 2008). Through their examples, authentic leaders inspire followers to change (Avolio & Gardner, 2005). Authentic leadership has been previously linked to a series of positive organizational outcomes. The study of authentic leadership is relevant for the Romanian context, as the country has been struggling to minimize corruption at various institutional and organizational levels. The present study explored the influence of authentic leadership dimensions on organizational commitment and follower job performance directly and indirectly, via trust in supervisor, in a sample of Romanian information technology employees (N = 135). The results indicate that authentic leadership dimensions positively influence organizational commitment, and trust in supervisor partially mediates the positive influence of authentic leadership dimensions on organizational commitment. More specifically, self-awareness and internalized moral perspective were found to significantly influence employee organizational commitment. No significant relationship was found between authentic leadership dimensions and follower job performance. A discussion of the theoretical and practical implications of these findings along with limitations and recommendations for future research conclude the present endeavor. The research makes an important contribution to authentic leadership theory by exploring the influence of authentic leadership on organizational outcomes in Romania.

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The Relationship of Followership Style with YMCA Employee Outcomes

Abstract

Followership is the study of an individual’s ability to follow a leader. Previous studies that have investigated followership have primarily focused on job satisfaction and organizational commitment and have either considered followership as a whole or only considered the dimension of active engagement (Blanchard, Welbourne, Gimore, & Bullock, 2009; Gatti, Claudio, Tartari, & Ghislieri, 2014). Both Blanchard et al. (2009) and Gatti et al. (2014) confirmed a connection between followership, commitment, and job satisfaction; however, each study also offered some incongruous information, suggesting a need for further research in this area. The current study investigated the relationship between two critical dimensions that make up followership style—independent critical thinking and active engagement—with employee in-role and extrarole behavior and person–organization fit. Taking into consideration that these relationships are impacted by the nature of a follower’s interaction with his or her current supervisor, the moderating effect of leader–member exchange was also tested. This study used cross-sectional data collected through a convenience sample of employees (n = 154) in a regional YMCA comprised of five branch locations within Virginia Beach and Chesapeake, Virginia. This study revealed that positive relationships between the follower dimensions of independent critical thinking and active engagement existed between performance (in-role behavior and extrarole behavior) and person–organization fit. This study also rejected leader–member exchange as a moderator between follower dimensions and organizational behavior and person–organization fit. Theoretical and practical implications of these results are presented, and suggestions for future research are discussed.

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