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Hope: Exploring Nonprofit Leaders Generating Hope in Followers

Abstract

Leadership theories have included the construct of hope for many years (Helland & Winston, 2005). Luthans and Avolio (2003) asserted, “The force multiplier throughout history has often been attributed to the leader’s ability to generate hope” (p. 253). The current study examined how executive directors in the nonprofit sector describe the experience of generating hope in their followers. A qualitative phenomenological study was conducted to develop a composite description of generating hope from participants who have experienced the phenomenon. This study included a review of the theoretical literature that generated the interview questions. Additionally, this study includes a discussion of the qualitative design rationale for data collection and analysis. Six executive directors were interviewed; the key finding was that hope generation rests in quality relationship with followers characterized by teamwork, motivation, modeling, trust, and transparency and includes investing in follower professional development as an external resource through skill building and emotional support that results in personal and professional goal setting and achievement and, ultimately, organizational mission fulfillment. In the conclusion is a discussion of the limitations to this study and recommendations for further research.

Breaking Through the Mental Barriers of an Entrepreneur

Abstract

The diversity in entrepreneurial activity has been shown in literature to represent a complex set of knowledge, resources, and skills yet also has been shown to prevent scholars from finding the universal chords intrinsic to becoming a successful entrepreneur. This dissertation specifically looks at the mental barriers faced by entrepreneurs through a qualitative, phenomenological design, employing interviews to collect data from the perspective of people’s experiences. The study explores the question: What breaks through the mental barriers of an entrepreneur? Expanding on the distinction made in this exploration that there is a difference between internal factors and the placement of external influences related to the process required for breaking through Chopra’s (1999) mental barriers of (a) getting past one’s initial reaction and (b) creating a desired change, this exploration confirmed that a mental barrier breakthrough is possible only by those contenders to a process to be completed. The findings further articulate that depending on one’s willingness and specific path taken, results will reflect either long- or short-term benefits. These findings provide a significant contribution in understanding those areas to develop in regard to one’s ability to break through these mental barriers and where future research may be most beneficial. This dissertation also provides a way for these developments to be articulated into a practical application. Learning the process for breaking through mental barriers takes time and requires exploration, experience, and knowing what to remove or avoid when seeking a clear vision to assess an idea, situation, or obstacle. Future research considerations are also provided.

Understanding Servant Leadership as a Phenomenon Through the Lived Experiences of Leaders of Private Organizations and NGOs in Ibadan and Lagos in Southwest Nigeria: A Qualitative Study Using Q-Sorts

Abstract

This study examines the phenomenon of servant leadership in the Nigerian context. It sought to understand the phenomenon from the lived experiences of leaders of nongovernmental organizations (NGOs) and private organizations in Ibadan and Lagos in the Southwest region, particularly given the pre-Colonial legacy in the Ibadan kingship-leadership structure. The study (a) discusses Nigeria as the context for the study and (b) identifies and explains differences in pre-Colonial leadership styles of the Hausa, Igbo, and Yoruba ethnic communities as well as contemporary organizations in Nigeria and the challenges they face. The study uses the framework of Patterson’s (2003) servant leadership model, particularly service, vision, and humility which have been shown to be common descriptive elements of servant leaders (Hale & Fields, 2007; Ihenacho, 2011), and Hofstede’s (2001) cultural dimensions of (a) individualism vs. collectivism and (b) power distance. The researcher collected data by (a) interviewing senior executives, (b) examining relevant historical and leadership documents, and (c) keeping field notes and a reflective journal. The researcher then conducted a Q-sort. The data were analyzed using Schmolck and Atkinson’s (2000) PQMethod software, deriving three factors of (a) Ǫmǫluabi serving with collaboration and humility, (b) chief servant leading by example with humility and (c) passionate visionary humbly modeling the way through service. Implications for Nigeria, leadership theory and practice, and recommendations for future research are discussed.

Emotional Intelligence, Leader-Member Exchange, Job Stress, and Job Satisfaction: A Study of Practicing Attorneys

Abstract

Some levels of job stress result in productivity, ingenuity, and satisfaction. However, as job stress increases, job satisfaction tends to decline and compromise work results. Internal individual differences and external contextual factors may buffer the effects of negative aspects of stress. This study investigated the buffering effects of emotional intelligence (EI) and leader-member exchange (LMX) on the relationship between job stress and job satisfaction. A structured survey questionnaire was used to gather data from 214 attorneys licensed in the State of Florida. The study investigated whether the results of moderated multiple regression analysis of the collected data would show that the interaction of EI and job stress would have buffered the relationship between job stress and job satisfaction. Similarly, the study investigated whether the results of moderated multiple regression analysis of the collected data would also show that the interaction LMX and job stress would have buffered the relationship between job stress and job satisfaction. However, the results of the study did not support a finding of moderating effects on the independent variable and dependent variable relationship. Analysis of the data revealed that EI and LMX had a mediating effect on the independent variable and dependent variable relationship of the participants. Implications of the study on job stress theories of practice, research methodologies, conceptual limitations, and suggested directions for future research are also discussed.

Servant Leadership and Organizational Citizenship: A Moderated Mediation Model of Perceived Leader Effectiveness and Exchange Ideology in Rwanda

Abstract

What effects do reciprocity expectations have on the relationship between servant leadership and organizational citizenship? The present study proposed and tested a moderated mediation model of the effects of servant leadership on two types of organizational citizenship behaviors (altruism and courtesy). First, the study hypothesized that perceived leader effectiveness mediates the relationship between servant leadership and these two types of organizational citizenship (H1). The study further hypothesized that employee exchange ideology moderates the indirect effects of perceived leader effectiveness in each of these models (H2). Three theoretical trajectories explain the proposed relationships between study variables: social learning theory (Bandura, 1977), cognitive categorization theory (Rosch, 1975), and reciprocity/clientelism (Gouldner, 1960; Landé, 1977). Adult Rwandans working in nongovernment settings comprise the sample for this study. Data collection yielded 194 usable responses (N = 194) which were analyzed based on study hypotheses. Data analysis showed adequate support for the full mediation effects of perceived leader effectiveness on the relationship between servant leadership and both forms of organizational citizenship. However, concerning the moderating effects of exchange ideology in the mediation models, analysis demonstrated that exchange ideology only moderated the mediation model with respect to courtesy and not altruism. The presentation concludes with a discussion of theoretical and practical implications along with suggestions for future research. This study makes an important contribution to leadership theory by better understanding the nature of leader-follower relationships in Africa and the importance of reciprocity in these relationships.

Exploring the Differences of Faith Manifestations and Entrepreneurial Orientations of Catholics and Protestants

Abstract

There is a dearth of quantitative research that considers the integration of Christian faith and entrepreneurship. Accordingly, the purpose of this study was to explore the differences of faith manifestations and entrepreneurial orientations of Catholics and Protestants at work. Based on the foundational relationships of sacred scripture, sacred tradition, and natural law, Catholics embrace a social magisterium that makes them unique not only among other religions but also within the Christian faith. If Catholics are different from Protestants, there should be observable differences in faith manifestations and entrepreneurial behaviors for Catholics and Protestants at work. Utilizing The Integration Box and the Individual Entrepreneurial Orientation instruments, no statistically significant differences for Catholics and Protestants were found. The theoretical implications of this research reveal that the hypothesized Catholic versus Protestant relationship at work may be a false dilemma. From a Catholic perspective, the practical implications of this research reiterate the need for radical Catholic reeducation of the tenets present in Catholic social teaching. Directions for future research are presented.

Leadership Malpractice in Higher Education: Effects of Organizational Ethical Culture and Followers

Abstract

There has been a growing need to stop bullying from leaders in organizations and to support targets of this often ignored phenomenon. The death of Kevin Morrissey, the managing editor of the University of Virginia’s Virginia Quarterly Review, served as the catalyst in this research. The purpose of this cross-sectional quantitative study was to examine the effects of organizational ethical culture (i.e., ethical values, procedural justice, and interactional justice) and followers’ perception of organizational support on abusive supervision and vicarious abusive supervision in institutions of higher education. Using a sample of 747 administrators, faculty, and staff from 11 colleges and universities in the southeastern region of the United States, organizational ethical culture was found to make the largest statistically significant contribution and was the best predictor of abusive supervision. Followers’ perceived organizational support also made a contribution; however, it was not significant. When examining the individual dimensions measured in organizational ethical culture, interactional justice was highly related to abusive supervision. In relation to vicarious abusive supervision, organizational ethical culture made the largest statistically significant contribution and was the best predictor, although followers’ perceived organizational support made a statistically significant contribution. Position level (i.e., supervisors and nonsupervisors) did not differ in terms of the followers’ tolerance of abusive supervision and vicarious abusive supervision. On the other hand, an employee’s rank had an influence on abusive supervision. To the researcher’s knowledge, there were no studies on abusive supervision and vicarious abusive supervision in the postsecondary education field in the United States. The intent was to demonstrate if supervisory bullying occurred in a higher education setting and to bring awareness of incivility in academe. Implications of these findings are discussed as well as strengths and limitations of the study. Future directions for research of abusive supervision in higher education are suggested.

Measuring Individual Capacity to Lead: Development and Validation of a Theory Based Instrument

Abstract

Few studies have presented a conceptually complete model describing capacity to be a leader. This study developed and tested a measure that operationalizes individual capacity to lead. The measure is based on integrating the conceptual models of Popper and Mayseless (2007), Dries and Pepermans (2012), and Chan and Drasgow (2001). The resulting measure may significantly improve an organization’s ability to select individuals for training and development who have the highest capacity to succeed as leaders. Ultimately, this may prove useful for human resources selection, development initiatives, succession planning, and recruiting. This measurement tool was developed using a four-step process: (a) item development, (b) scale identification and validation through use of a Delphi panel, (c) item reduction and identification of underlying dimensions through use of a large sample (N = 467) of working adults, and (d) assessment of construct validity of the capacity-to-lead instrument. The measure has three components: follower-focused (α = .961), focused on leading and influencing others; learning agility (α = .925), focused on the idea of a leader being adaptable to changing environments, situations, and stimuli; and intellectual curiosity (α = .891), focused on a leader having a curiosity that stems from an intellectual framework and pursuit. Future research ideas, limitations of the study, and practical applications for this instrument are provided.

Managing Insidious Barriers to Upward Communication in Organizations: An Empirical Investigation of Relationships Among Implicit Voice Theories, Power Distance Orientation, Self-Efficacy, and Leader-Directed Voice

Abstract

Organizations whose employees can freely voice ideas, suggestions, and problems to decision makers have a competitive advantage in effectively navigating the vicissitudes of today’s hyper-competitive business environment. Studies have amassed considerable evidence related to individual and contextual influences to explain why members of organizations often choose to withhold rather than speak up to superiors. An emerging stream of research has shown that employee silence may stem from self-protective implicit voice theories (IVTs): taken-for-granted rules of self-censorship (Detert & Edmondson, 2011). Building on prior research, this study investigated IVTs, individual power distance orientation, problem-solving self-efficacy, and creative self-efficacy as predictors of leader-directed voice using data collected from 1,032 employees (individual contributors: n = 696; supervisors: n = 336) in an investment firm. This study also tested problem-solving and creative self-efficacy as moderators of the relationships between IVTs and individual power distance orientation with leader-directed voice. All hypotheses were tested with supervisor-reported voice as the dependent variable and compared in post-hoc tests with self-reported voice as the criterion. Two tests using supervisor-reported voice were significant: the don’t embarrass the boss in public IVT was a significant predictor of voice beyond the controls, and the interaction effect of the need solid data or solutions to speak up IVT with creative self-efficacy was significant, though it masked a pattern of amplified negative impact antithetical to the hypothesized nature of moderation. Post-hoc analyses using self-reported voice as the criterion variable revealed that the composite IVTs scale, all individual IVTs apart from the don’t embarrass the boss in public IVT, problem-solving self-efficacy, and creative self-efficacy were significant predictors of voice beyond the control set. In addition, creative self-efficacy attenuated the negative effects of both the presumed target identification and don’t embarrass the boss in public IVTs on self-reported voice. Additional post-hoc testing, theoretical and practical implications, and limitations and directions for future research are discussed.

Testing the Reliability and Validity of the 108 Skills of Natural Born Leaders Self-Assessment

Abstract

There are many leadership self-assessments. Warren Blank’s (2001) 108 Skills of Natural Born Leaders Self-Assessment (NBLSA) is one that has never been statistically validated. The current study, administered in the form of a survey, quantitatively examined the NBLSA for reliability and validity. Face validity draws upon the relationship of the NBLSA items to leadership theory, convergence measured against the Taking Charge instrument developed by Morrison and Phelps (1999), and discriminant validity compared against both the Interpersonal Deviance Scale and the Organizational Deviance Scale of the Deviant Behaviors instrument developed by Aquino, Lewis, and Bradford (1999). This study used DeVellis’ (2012) scale development guidelines. However, given the scale already exists, only the last three of eight steps were required. Analysis revealed there are six factors that capture the major categories of the NLBSA. The new factors showed good internal consistency, strong Pearson correlation coefficient reliability, and convergent validity. The six factors failed to show test–retest reliability and discriminant validity. Therefore, the NBLSA remains a nonvalidated instrument.