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Ethical Adaptive Complexity Leadership: A Phenomenological Study of Critical Incidents in Complex Decision Making

Abstract

Leaders frequently face ethical decisions in volatile, uncertain, complex, and ambiguous environments. This phenomenological study explored how experienced organizational leaders described, interpreted, and responded to ethically complex decision making during critical incidents. Guided by the ethical adaptive complexity leadership (EACL) framework, which integrates ethical, adaptive, and complexity leadership theories, the study employed Flanagan’s (1954) critical incident technique (CIT) to elicit detailed narratives from senior leaders across diverse organizational settings. Eight semistructured interview questions, based on current leadership research, directed this investigation. Data analysis involved thematic coding within a phenomenological approach, identifying themes both inductively and deductively. Findings revealed recurring patterns of ethical tension, adaptive responses, and systems awareness that influenced leader behavior and reflective thinking. This research advances leadership scholarship by combining ethical, adaptive, and faith-informed perspectives across organizational, military, and community contexts. By reframing systemic pressures as opportunities for moral reflection and coalition building, leaders demonstrate how they turn crises into testimonies of service. The unique contribution of this work lies in its multidimensional framework, which integrates theory and practice to guide leadership in ethically complex situations. Implications include applications for leadership training, crisis management, ethical decision-making frameworks, and organizational resilience.

Keywords: adaptive leadership, coalition building, complexity leadership, critical incident technique, decision making, real-time crisis management

An Assessment of Servant Leadership Differences Between Information Technology Leaders in Canada and India

Abstract

This study focused on the differences in servant leadership between information technology (IT) leaders in Canada and India. Greenleaf (1977) introduced the concept of servant leadership, but Patterson (2003) developed a newer model that describes the process by which a leader and followers interact through seven leadership attributes. The seven leadership constructs by Patterson that were leveraged in this study include Agapao love, humility, altruism, vision, trust, empowerment, and service. The study used the Servant Leadership Assessment Instrument (SLAI) by R. S. Dennis and Bocarnea (2005) to examine whether followers’ perceptions of their leaders differed by leader–follower gender similarity and tenure (time spent under that leader). Data was collected using a questionnaire with convenience sampling to gather information, provide insight, and foster understanding, thereby answering the research questions and testing the research hypotheses. The study findings suggested that country does not have a statistically significant effect on agapao, altruism, empowerment, humility, or trust but does have a statistically significant effect on serving and vision. Also, it confirmed that a leader’s empowerment of followers was positively related to followers’ perceptions of service in both Canadian and Indian contexts. Future recommendations for research on this topic include conducting a mixed-methods study with additional instruments beyond the SLAI to analyze differences in servant leadership between leaders in the Canadian and Indian IT sectors.

Keywords: information technology, culture, servant leadership

Five Components of Success in Professional Services: A Mixed Methods Study of Successful Architecture and Engineering Firms

Abstract

This mixed methods study examines what distinguishes successful architecture and engineering firms by exploring five organizational components: values, mission, and vision (VMV); governance; organizational structure; leadership; and culture. Drawing from data from a broader survey population, firms performing in the 80th percentile of overall performance over a 3-year period were identified for participation. Qualitative data were collected through semistructured interviews with firm leaders and analyzed using transcription, artificial-intelligence-assisted coding, and second-cycle thematic analysis. Quantitative data were gathered using validated instruments, including the Multifactor Leadership Questionnaire to assess leadership styles and the Organizational Culture Assessment Instrument to identify prevailing cultural orientations. Traditional financial and structural variables such as firm size, growth rate, turnover, and cash flow were intentionally excluded as drivers of success, as they were not significantly correlated with firm performance in the full study sample. The findings indicated that high-performing architecture and engineering firms share a pronounced internal and interpersonal orientation across values, governance practices, organizational structure, leadership behavior, and culture. VMV primarily function as sources of meaning and identity, with vision often expressed as an implicit, lived construct rather than a formalized statement. Governance practices reflect partnership-like norms characterized by shared authority, collective stewardship, and peer accountability, regardless of legal corporate form. Organizational structure is experienced less through formal hierarchies and more through teamwork, professional autonomy, and client-centered accountability. Quantitative results showed that firm leaders predominantly exhibit transformational leadership traits and that clan culture is the dominant cultural orientation. Collectively, the findings suggest that sustained success in professional services firms emerges from alignment and coherence around internally focused, relational, and professional norms that are reinforced across values, governance, organizational structure, leadership behavior, and culture, rather than from the optimization of any single organizational element in isolation.

Keywords: Culture, Governance, Leadership, Mission, Organizational Structure, Values

Exploring the Lived Experiences of Pastors’ Wives Through Social Identity Theory

Abstract

This qualitative phenomenological study examined the lived leadership experiences of pastors’ wives who serve in unofficial or unrecognized leadership capacities within their churches and explored how they construct and interpret their social identity and influence through the lens of social identity theory. The problem addressed was the persistent invisibility, role ambiguity, and identity pressure surrounding pastors’ wives’ contributions to ecclesial leadership, despite their significant relational and organizational impact. Guided by two research questions, the study investigated (a) how pastors’ wives describe their lived experiences in unofficial leadership roles and (b) how they interpret their identity and influence in the absence of formal authority. Purposeful sampling was used to recruit participants who met established criteria. Data were collected through semistructured, in-depth interviews conducted via secure video conferencing, audio-recorded with consent, and transcribed verbatim. Data analysis followed Moustakas’s (1994) modified van Kaam (1966) phenomenological method, including horizontalization, reduction and elimination, clustering of themes, and the synthesis of textural and structural descriptions into a composite essence. Six interrelated themes emerged: leadership was most frequently experienced as informal and assumed in response to ministry needs rather than formally assigned; emotional labor and regulation functioned as continuous, often unseen work that sustained congregational stability; heightened visibility operated as a pervasive contextual condition shaping behavioral norms, emotional expression, and representational responsibility; calling-based leadership identity provided an internally anchored framework through which participants made meaning of responsibility and influence apart from positional authority; identity negotiation reflected ongoing tension between personal identity and role expectations, often unfolding developmentally through reflection and discernment; and leadership trajectories varied as anticipated or unanticipated, yet consistently matured over time through lived experience. This study extends social identity theory into ecclesial leadership contexts and contributes to the scholarly literature on informal leadership, identity construction, and social influence within faith-based Pastors’ Wives Experience Through SIT iv organizational systems. Practitioner implications include recommendations for churches to recognize, clarify, and ethically support the informal leadership roles of Pastors’ Wives.

Keywords: Church Leadership, Divorce and Church Leadership Development, Divorce in Church, Leadership Development

The Influence of Power Distance in Shaping the Responses of Elected Officials: A Nigerian Case Study

Abstract

This study emanated from a desire to understand the intriguing disconnect and seeming lack of empathy from elected officials to citizens that widely permeates Nigerian society at practically all levels of governance. The study investigated the role of power distance as a cultural influence in shaping the responses of elected officials in Nigeria to the needs and yearnings of the people they are elected to serve. The study sought to answer the following questions: How does the power distance culture affect elected officials in discharging their responsibilities? How can the electorate limit the impact of power distance on their elected officials? What are the mitigating factors to the effects of power distance on elected officials? The study used a qualitative case study design to investigate whether the responses of elected officials to their electorate are affected by the cultural influence of power distance. The participants in this study are an elected chairman of a local government area, three employees of a primary health care center whom the elected official represents, and two independent shop owners in a local market under the elected official’s control. Through in-depth interviews and subsequent in vivo coding, the study found emerging themes that provide insight into how the official’s empathy and connection to the people are affected by power distance.

Keywords: Elected officials, Empathy, Leadership, Nigeria, Power distance

Ethical Leadership and Workplace Disengagement: A Quantitative Study of Quiet Quitting and Quiet Firing in a U.S. Workforce

Abstract

The postpandemic workplace has surfaced a quiet crisis: employees disengaging without resigning and managers nudging out unwanted staff without formal termination. This quantitative study investigated whether ethical leadership, measured across three dimensions of care, critique, and justice, bears a measurable relationship to these behaviors, known as quiet quitting (QQ) and quiet firing (QF). A sample of 543 fully employed U.S. adults completed the Ethical Leadership Questionnaire (ELQ; Langlois et al., 2014) and the QQ/QF scale (Anand et al., 2024), using both instruments in a U.S. context for the first time to evaluate relationships with excellent reliability (α = .888–.942). Regression analyses revealed that the ethic of care rooted in the relational attentiveness that servant leadership theory and biblical tradition alike identify as foundational to honorable leadership was the only ELQ dimension that uniquely predicted lower QQ and QF when the shared variance among dimensions was properly partitioned. The ethic of critique and ethic of justice carried positive associations with both outcomes, suggesting that structural and advocacy-focused ethical leadership, while valuable, does not substitute for the day-to-day relational investment that employees experience as genuine care. A notable subgroup pattern among military veterans, who reported markedly higher QQ and QF and showed a complete reversal in ELQ correlations compared to nonveterans, raised important questions about role identity and survey framing in ethical leadership research. The findings call organizations back to a leadership model grounded in human dignity, relational trust, and the kind of wholehearted stewardship described in Colossians 3:23, one where employees bring their full effort because their leaders have first demonstrated care for them as persons, not merely as performers.

Keywords: quiet quitting, quiet firing, ethical leadership, ethics of care, servant leadership, employee disengagement, postpandemic workplace, military veterans, organizational ethics

A Qualitative Analysis of Regenerative Leadership: Organizational Culture, Conservation, and Christianity

Abstract

Regenerative leadership theory emphasizes the relationships of people with each other and with the natural environment, all with an outlook toward the future and longevity. The purpose of this study was to explore regenerative leadership and its interactions with organizational culture, conservation, and Christianity. Using a qualitative approach, 11 participants working in leadership positions at Association of Zoos and Aquariums (AZA)-accredited organizations participated in a semistructured, 10-question interview focused on organizational culture, conservation, and Christianity. Findings show that regenerative leaders create environments in which staff have high levels of job satisfaction, invest in the staff’s personal and professional development, and partner with other organizations that share similar missions and visions. Regenerative leaders acknowledge the current state of the environment and work with education programs to foster the next generation of conservationists. Regenerative leaders develop and advance facilities and initiatives while also engaging with the local community and beyond. Regenerative leaders focus on stewardship and on being good stewards of their resources. While many of these organizations carry state or federal funding, they do not approach any religion from an organizational standpoint. If they are professing Christians, Christianity can be evident in their work and actions. Contributing to the scholarly literature, this study shows how regenerative leadership theory operates within the organization and extends beyond it to other nations and the global community. In the practitioner literature, the study explains decision making from the perspective of the regenerative leader and how these decisions impact the organization and its employees. Advancing the theory of regenerative leadership, this study shows how regenerative leaders cultivate an environment that creates opportunities to make a difference for the future by fostering an engaging work environment, being mission-aligned with conservation, and being good stewards of their tools and resources.

Keywords: conservation, future generations, global impact, mission-driven organization, stewardship, sustainability

Executive Leaders’ Perception of Coaching: Assessing the Value and Impact of Organizational Success

Abstract

Within contemporary organizations, tools utilized for leadership development remain a priority in strategic planning; yet the (a) perceived value, (b) return on investment (ROI), and measurable impact within organizations resulting from the implementation of executive coaching remain uncertain (Day et al., 2014; Gurdjian et al., 2014; Theeboom et al., 2014). Although existing literature has initiated a correlation between coaching and the improvement of organizational stakeholders’ performance, engagement, and well-being (Bozer & Jones, 2018; Halliwell et al., 2023), limited studies have focused on the lived perceptions of coaching’s benefit from executives responsible for investing in coaching within organizations. This qualitative phenomenological study aimed to understand how the perception of executive leaders related to the effectiveness of coaching as a leadership tool influences how leaders make investment decisions, ultimately affecting organizational outcomes. The theoretical frameworks underpinning this investigation were transformational leadership theory (Bass, 1985; Bass & Riggio, 2006; Burns, 1978) and self-determination theory (Deci & Ryan, 1985; Ryan & Deci, 2020). The purposeful participants were 10 executive leaders who had participated in a professional coaching relationship for at least 6 months within the 3 years preceding the interview. Data were acquired through 1-hour semistructured Zoom interviews guided by eight prestructured questions. Interviews were thematically categorized through the two-cycle coding process. The first cycle used process coding to reveal actions and behaviors systematically; the second cycle thematically coded the information gathered to capture the recurring patterns and overarching themes (Braun & Clarke, 2021). Results demonstrated that executive coaching functioned as an effective transformational leadership development tool, leveraging the increase in self-awareness, emotional regulation, reflective decision making, and relational effectiveness. Executives perceived ROI as a strategic element of multidimensional benefits, transcending beyond financial metrics to include an increase in communication skills, personal accountability, engagement, collaboration with other stakeholders, and sustainability of organizational performance (Grant, 2017; Theeboom et al., 2014). Results yielded a contribution to scholarly and practitioner understanding by revealing how the executive coaching structures the identity of leaders and improves the effectiveness of system-level tasks within the complexities of organizational environments.

Keywords: Employee Engagement, Executive Coaching, Leadership Development, Organizational Effectiveness, Return on Investment (ROI), Transformational Leadership

Leading While Divorced: Leadership Development in the Local Church

Abstract

Unfortunately, divorce is widespread in today’s society. It is never the expected outcome of marriage but is a growing reality for the church and its leaders. This rising statistic proves that no one is excluded and identifies a need for discussion and action by the church. There is a gap that exists between the values expressed in the Bible regarding marriage and the practical realities of divorce in the church. Therefore, this qualitative phenomenological study explored the lived experiences of divorced church leaders. During the data collection process, semistructured interviews were conducted with eight participants who provided an in-depth look into their lived experience as a divorced church leader. The findings revealed the multidimensional effects of divorce on leaders. Key themes identified were divorce as an identity-shattering lived experience, institutional silence and inconsistent care, self-directed healing and leadership reformation, theological reconstruction— from legalism to grace, and advocacy for a more compassionate human-centered church. This study fills a gap in existing literature and provides insight to assist the church in ways to support and develop an effective plan for guiding divorced or divorcing church leaders in leadership development. This study shows how a devastating event in life, such as divorce, provides an opportunity for the church to fulfill a core mission and foundational function: ministering to hurting people.

Keywords: Church Leadership, Divorce and Church Leadership Development, Divorce in Church, Leadership Development

The Nurses’ Perception of Their Immediate Supervisors’ Servant Leadership Behaviors and Their Sense of Work Effectiveness in a Selection of Dar es Salaam Public Hospitals of Tanzania

Abstract

This study focused on the relationship between nurses’ perceptions of their immediate supervisors’ servant leadership behaviors and their sense of work effectiveness in a selection of Tanzanian public hospitals. I utilized servant leadership theory, which has its roots in Greenleaf (1977). Greenleaf proposed that leaders adopt a servant position in their relationships with their followers. In analyzing servant leadership behaviors, I utilized the Essential Servant Leadership Behavior (ESLB) scale (Winston & Fields, 2015). I also used the Conditions of Work Effectiveness Questionnaire (CWEQ) II (Laschinger et al., 2001) to assess work effectiveness. Winston and Fields (2015) stated that the ESLB provides a psychometrically valid approach for gauging leaders’ servant leadership behaviors and shows a strong relationship between servant leadership behaviors and followers’ judgments on outcomes such as job satisfaction, trust, and low burnout, which are characteristics measured by the CWEQ II. I also chose the CWEQ II because it was specifically made to measure nurses’ perception of their direct supervisor’s bureaucratic behaviors (Laschinger et al., 2001). CWEQ II has also been proven to be valid and reliable, which fits the purpose of this study. Tanzania has shown interest in adopting servant leadership (Chandaruba, 2019). The study results suggest that there are perceived positive and statistically significant relationships between servant leadership and work effectiveness in Tanzania; however, challenges exist regarding access to resources, support, information, formal, and informal power within hospital groups. Regarding access to opportunities, there were no significant differences by hospital size. This study is the first known servant leadership study in the Tanzanian hospital system, and it closes the gap in servant leadership theory and practice. Additional studies are recommended to duplicate this study and to include other regions of Tanzania and elsewhere in the world. Using qualitative and mixed methods, together with other instruments for analyzing servant leadership and work effectiveness, is also recommended.

Keywords: servant leadership, essential leader behaviors, work effectiveness