Clayton Coblentz
MA, Regent University
The influence of the Internet upon communication has become prevalent among various social, economic, religious and political levels world-wide. A cursory glance at the recent escalation of references to the Internet in magazines, newspapers, radio, television, motion pictures and scholarly journals supports the "Net's" rising influence and contribution to the communicative process. Acceptance or rejection of the Internet's validity as a legitimate communication medium becomes over shadowed by the magnitude of its infiltration into the daily process of commerce, education, politics and business. Dismissing this influence as a passing fad becomes premature in light of e-mail ad dresses printed on business cards, tele-commuters never gracing the door of the company building and World Wide Web domain names emblazoned on everything from magazine ads to key chains.
Through the pervasive use and influence of the Internet, the World Wide Web has emerged as the primary Internet tool for information organization, distribution and retrieval. The Web's inclusive media capabilities and world-wide connectivity are the primary characteristics which make the medium so appealing as a communication tool. The incorporation of text, graphics, photographs, sound, three-dimensional objects and moving images into an associative indexing or hypertext framework magnifies the comprehensive multi-media capabilities of the Web. On-line tours, comprised of video clips and descriptive text, can demonstrate the capabilities of products and services for shopping at home. The current exhibits of an art museum can be digitally displayed; which could include a pictorial history of the work through its various stages with an audio interpretation by the artist. The digital network connections provided through the Internet allow the Web to operate on a world-wide level. Academicians and scientists can exchange technical schematics of experimental findings from laboratories located in the United States and Finland. Conversely, high-school class mates can work on a group report while attending separate classes in Russia and Germany. The combination of traditional media capabilities with current digital storage and transmission technologies establishes the World Wide Web as the potentially dominant communication medium for the 21st century.
The rhetorical examination of new media, new technologies and their effects has been seemingly bypassed by rhetorical scholars. A possible reason for this oversight could include an apprehension toward new media texts. Advances in technology are inclined to cause initial discomfort for those who are unfamiliar with their operation. New media technologies have a tendency to employ new visual capabilities along with traditional textual information. These traits are coupled with the added function of interactivity bringing the audience into the role of participant. Because of the interactive nature of new media, a rhetorical occasion for a single artifact could change with each interaction. Instability and unfamiliarity compounded with a long tradition of discursive study makes the rhetorical examination of new media potentially unattractive for traditional scholars.
Through the influence of television and computer related technologies, society has moved from the aural or textual communication tradition toward a new visual communication tradition. Rhetorical scholars have also moved toward the study of visual media through examinations of sculpture, paintings, television advertisements and music videos. Sonja Foss, among others, recognized the change associated with the introduction of visual media by stating "...visual images now have the significance that public speeches once did" (Foss Visual Images 211). Foss and Kathaleen Reid, through their examinations of art forms, grounded the significance and importance of visual rhetoric.
Foss states, "As the conscious production or arrangement of colors, forms, images, textures and other elements in a manner that effects or evokes a response, I see visual images as forms of rhetoric that attempt as does discursive rhetoric, to influence others' 'thinking and behavior through the strategic use of symbols'" (Foss Dinner Party 206). Reid echoes visual rhetoric's place by saying, "These non-discursive forms of communication function in a way that is similar to discourse in that they transmit information and evoke some response from an audience" (Reid 83). Both scholars establish visual rhetoric as possessing the same key functions as discursive rhetoric through an ability to evoke a response, influence thinking and behavior and transmit information.
Although the World Wide Web continues to utilize text, the primary tools of communication reside within its visual attributes. The Web, through the presentation of a home page, combines text with computer graphics into one whole visual image. Text becomes part of the visual imagery often providing clarification for the interpretation of the individual images. Icons or image maps take precedent within the presentation with accompanying text often serving as supplementary material which defines the visual image. Placement of the elements can be considered equally important thus reinforcing the weight of visual communication. Therefore the combination of text, images and their placement allow a home page to be considered as a single, whole visual image comprised of various elements.
The challenge for rhetorical scholars resides within how to best interpret the use of interactive, visual rhetoric as presented through the World Wide Web. As described above webpages consist of text, images and their placement. Because of the visual nature of the Web, the meaning of various links to information from a webpage is communicated through the use of icons. Icons can be comprised of a single, graphic symbol or a symbol combined with descriptive text. Each form can be considered an icon. Icons are used to define the meaning of what information will be found at the destination of a link and the type of interaction required of the user. As a result, a metaphor is created through the ability of an icon to communicate meaning in terms of the relationship with the corresponding symbol. Foss summarizes these thoughts by saying, "By organizing reality in particular ways, our selected metaphors also prescribe how we are to act. [sic] They organize attitudes toward whatever they describe and provide motives for acting in certain ways" (Foss Criticism 360). The organization of attitudes or reality into metaphoric symbols which prescribe how one should act or interact addresses the core function of communication through the World Wide Web: hypertext. Therefore, the use of visual metaphoric analysis would be an effective tool toward understanding interactive media. This paper strives to develop an original theory for webpage analysis based upon visual metaphors and their clustering within an interactive artifact.
Within the medium of the World Wide Web, two distinct categories of metaphor are present. External and internal metaphors serve to identify the characteristics of communication through the use of the Web. External metaphors are primarily linguistic metaphors used to publicly define the purpose, function and integration of the Web as a communication device. The terms "information superhighway" and "World Wide Web" exert external influence upon individuals who bring these conceptions to the viewing occasion. Internal metaphors are those metaphors of a visual nature existing within a home page which determine the interaction, purpose and meaning of a website. Metaphors of this type could appear in the form of graphics, text, visual placement or a combination of all three.
"Whatever metaphor is used to label and experience a phenomenon, then, suggests evaluations of it and appropriate behavior in response" (360). The evaluation of the phenomenon of the World Wide Web occurs through a relationship between external and internal metaphors. This relationship determines the level of interaction or engagement with the content of a website. The longer the interaction with the website the more exposure to the ideology or influence of the website. The level of interaction is based upon how closely the external metaphors of defining Web communication correspond with the internal metaphors used to describe communication within a website. Publicly the Web has been defined as exhibiting certain characteristics. An individual when browsing the Web carries these definitions with them to each website. At the point of engagement with the home page an instant evaluation is made concerning the level of adherence the website's metaphors maintain with the established external metaphors of Web identification. "Behavior in response" is demonstrated through the number of hypertext links which are followed by an individual through a website.
Sustained interaction will occur to the degree the internal metaphors within a home page conform or conflict with the identification of World Wide Web communication as established by various external metaphors.
Since numerous resources are available through the World Wide, a problem occurs in determining what information belongs to whom. Authorship in the form of collaborative interactive documents or randomly accessed webpages can be difficult to determine. Alternately, how does a rhetorical critic determine what person, group of persons or organization authors ideas or information presented on the Web? The closest one comes to determining authorship is through identifying the website where the webpage resides. A website can exist as the entire information resident on a computer (server) or as a defined content area within a server. The initial presentation of information on a website occurs within the design of an individual's or organization's home page. The home page is the departure point for all access to web-related resources within a website. Even though the nature of the World Wide Web implies the absence of a hierarchical structure or "top," home pages serve as the imaginary "top" to the body of resources organized within a website. The home page usually undergoes the most scrutiny and evaluation in regards to structure, layout, design, images and text contained within the page. Thus the home page, more than any secondary page, deserves examination as the representative culmination of what is being communicated by the creator of the website.
The artifact for evaluation is a website designed exclusively to provide resources which assist and benefit professionals in the communication disciplines. CommWeb: The World Wide Resource Center for Communication Professionals was created and designed by Dr. Harry Sova of Blue Ridge Interactive, Inc. Due to the interactive nature of the medium and the dynamic qualities of this home page, attention was focused upon those internal elements with the most permanence drawn from the November 3rd and December 4th editions of home page.[1]
CommWeb fulfills two main criteria for selection. First, the website is targeted toward a specific audience. Knowing that CommWeb is attempting to provide original resources for communication professionals firmly establishes CommWeb's existence on the Web and allows specific conclusions to be drawn concerning its construction. Second, the website provides original content and thus serves as a source of primary knowledge. This differentiation is required since some websites only exist as a storehouse of links to needed information located elsewhere on the Web. The examination of the website will be confined to the home page located at http://www.commweb.com
In order to clearly determine the effective use of internal metaphors within a website, the critic must first ascertain the primary goal or intention for the website's existence. Continual browsing of CommWeb translates into increased revenue for the website's creator. The longer an individual browses CommWeb the greater the chance of selecting an advertiser's page. The more hits on an advertiser's page, the more money earned by the website's creator. Sustained interaction with the various webpages of a political candidate means more exposure to the ideals of the candidate as communicated by the website. A politician wants your vote, CommWeb wants advertisers' money. Each website demands something of its browser and effective websites will keep them engaged in order to maximize their goal. The question for this rhetorical study concerns what affects of CommWeb's home page evoke a positive response? A positive response is to engage the home page by clicking a link and browsing the website. In other words, how likely are Web browsers to interact with CommWeb based upon the presentation of the home page?
The likelihood of interaction will be based upon the relationship between the external metaphors used to identify communication on the World Wide Web and the internal metaphors used to identify a website through the use of a home page. Cluster analysis will be applied to the internal metaphors and their groupings around the key terms associated with the goals of the website. The relationship between the two will determine whether the presentation of a home page can be deemed as effective or influential. The level of interaction combined with the effective clustering of internal metaphors determines the potential success or influence a website will maintain among individuals.
The external metaphors selected for inclusion were based upon the most identifiable descriptors currently used to understand the various components which comprise the World Wide Web.
Also known as the "information highway," the phrase "information superhighway" is the metaphor used to describe the network communication system that will combine the functions of television, telephony and computer on-line services into one interactive system accessible from home. The origins of the phrase "information superhighway" was popularized by then Senator Albert Gore, Jr. of Tennessee sometime around 1991 (Gore 21). He was attempting to clarify for average Americans the complexity and societal benefits of a superhighway of information by introducing an analogy between the digital information network of the future and the interstate highway system of the 1950s.
The understanding of information as defined by the relationship with a superhighway carries two distinct meanings related to function or purpose of the latter. First, information can be viewed as a commodity. One of the primary purposes for the construction of an interstate highway system was to transports goods or products across geographical boundaries for commercial purposes. Information can thus be viewed as something of value to be traded, bought, sold, marketed and distributed. The association of the current Information Age with the Industrial Age realized at the turn of the century also supports this assertion. As the manufacturing and use of products transformed society during the early 1900s so will the manufacturing or collection of information resources transform the society of the 21st century.
Second, information is associated with travel or leisure. The creation of the interstate highway system facilitated automobile travel by individuals for vacation or leisure purposes. Traveling to a specific geographical location for the purpose of rest and relaxation or a break from the routine of daily life became a primary use of the highway. Information or storehouses of information on the superhighway can be used by individuals for the same purposes. Websites exist related to every hobby, interest, religion or entertainment preference that can be imaged by an individual.
Other mini-metaphors have been birthed from the "master-metaphor" of the information superhighway (Gozzi 321). Terms such as "on-ramp," "toll booth," "police," "speed limits," and "traffic jam" all serve to describe various issues surrounding the integration of an information superhighway into society (324-325).
World Wide Web is a phrase originally used by Tim Berners-Lee and Robert Cailliau, in November 1990, to describe a hypertext information distribution system. The system was presented as a proposal to CERN, a particle physics laboratory in Geneva, Switzerland. The World Wide Web was designed primarily to overcome the "current incompatibilities" of retrieving information from computers utilizing different platforms or tools "mak[ing] it impossible to access existing information through a common interface." "World-Wide" was used to describe the global connectivity and sharing of knowledge such a system would facilitate by crossing all geographic boundaries. "Web" was added to describe the type of structure hypertexted information would employ and how this was beneficial to the connectivity of shared resources. "This forming of a web of information nodes rather than a hierarchical tree or an ordered list is the basic concept behind hypertext. The network of links is called a web" (Berners-Lee and Cailliau). In this case the shorthand was applied for convenience. However, "Web" was also used metaphorically in order to clarify the hypertext concept by relating it to something more tangible.
Both of the words, "Net" and "Web," though derived out of convenience also carry other explicit meanings which could influence those who utilize the Internet and the World Wide Web. Net and Web make reference to spiders and the characteristics associated with them. The function of a net or a spider's web is to entangle or trap insects. The imagery presented implies the "catch" as helpless, trapped and possibly fated for some tragic demise. Viewing a browser as a catch portrays the Internet and the Web as controlling forces of communication and technology which could exert negative influence over those who find themselves entangled. Roles are reversed, however, if a browser becomes a physical part of the Web or Net. With this reversal, the individual assumes control over the networked system guiding themselves through the Web to catch desired information. A sense of freedom is assumed through the ability to move from one area to the next without engaging the hierarchical structures of current information distribution. The process can be viewed as a positive experience instead of through the negative connotations associated with spiders.
A home page, as mentioned earlier, is the departure point for all access to web-related resources within a website. The term "home page" metaphorically defines the attributes of information represented within a hypertext document. Home establishes a place of residence or house. The ideas and information presented through a home page establish the context of information to be accessed throughout the rest of the website. Home also establishes permanence of dwelling. The attempt to attribute security and permanence of home to unstable hypertext information appears to be an at tempt at establishing the credibility of the medium.
"Page" furthers the concept of credibility. Page represents a part of a larger printed work. Printing and publishing are viewed as a means of preservation, establishing permanence of idea and thought beyond the time period of original conception. Ideas are perceived as having importance or value because a person or persons considered the viewpoints worthy to be published. Page, among other recognized external metaphors other than possibly "highway," is the only explicit reference to established forms of mass media communication. The correlation between the World Wide Web and print establishes the functions and purpose of the new medium in the familiar context of the established medium. The related terms of "Web Publishing" and "HTML Authoring" further this association. The primary association of the new medium of the World Wide Web with the medium of mass printing also becomes significant to the identification of internal metaphors discussed later.
Currently two terms have emerged to describe individuals who use the World Wide Web: browser and navigator. Both terms and their meanings relate to the two primary uses of the information superhighway metaphor. The identification of an individual as a "browser" was apparently co-opted from the label given to the first graphical user interface program for use on the Web, NCSA Mosaic. A browser is actually any program which allows an individual to access webpages on the Internet. A person who uses a browser is also labeled a browser of hypertext information. Browsing connotes the examination of various items with the potential purpose of purchasing an item. Though a majority of webpages and services on the Web are free of charge, the association with information as a commodity and thus a browser as a consumer of product is distinctly made.
The term "navigator" was popularized through the introduction of the most pervasive browser program used to access webpages, Netscape Navigator. The Netscape Navigator program is currently the most popular browser used on the Web accounting for approximately 70 to 80 percent of all browsers use (Levy 40). A navigator is an individual who charts a course and acts as guide toward a destination. A navigator is viewed as one who is in control of a journey based upon a knowledge of the travel route between the point of departure and the destination. Navigator supports the other purpose of an information superhighway: travel. A navigator is in control of travel through various pages located on the World Wide Web. This leads to a sense of empowerement which would other wise be suppressed given the connotations of "Web" and "Net." [2]
Through metaphoric analysis visual and textual metaphors within CommWeb can be classified into three areas: placement, media references, and website identification. Viewing the home page as "the physical embodiment of its creator's intention" (Foss Dinner Party 207) necessitates an understanding of the overall embodiment of CommWeb's home page. An brief overview of general structure will demonstrate the framework internal metaphors must operate within.
The presentation of CommWeb adheres to a traditional organizational structure demonstrated through an identifiable introduction, body and conclusion. The introduction of the home page encompasses the top third of the viewing area with the CommWeb logo featured to the left and a quote from a recognized communication personality adjacent on the right. Below the logo and the quote is a block of text characterized by the word "Welcome" and orienting the browser to the content and structure of the website. The logo, the quote and the welcome comprise the introduction to the home page. The body of the home page consists of three sections: the highlights, the subject areas and the search engine. The highlights include a section entitled What's New and another called Hot Links, both of which present current, relevant information targeted for immediate selection. The current calendar date and number of updates to the home page are also included. Following the highlights are six subject areas providing descriptions of the type of content to be accessed through the website. The remainder of the body section is occupied by the search engine. A search engine is an electronic retrieval device which searches the website and returns desired information based upon user supplied words. The conclusion of the home page presents an opportunity for feedback to the page's creator and establishes the presentation as belonging to a specific organization and person.
The text and images within CommWeb are placed into opposing directional metaphors of left and right. Four of the six sections within the home page visually demonstrate a separation of information on the left and right. Throughout the entire page when text is adjacent to an image or symbol, the image consistently appears on the left and the text on the right. Visuals are clearly associated with the left and text is highly identified with the right. Textual metaphors are grouped more on the left than the right with media references, discussed later, distributed evenly throughout. A visual representation of the placement metaphor is the symbol for the Information Exchange subject area. The symbol consists of two arrows on top of one another; one pointing right and the other pointing left.
Information and images on the left are more visually oriented and concise. Important descriptors of information are highlighted and brief. Bold type and colored links emphasize key symbols bringing them to the visual foreground. Additional descriptions of these symbols are also very succinct. Visual cues within the home page lie heavily on the left. The number of icons on the left clearly outnumbers icons placed on the right. Visuals dominate the left side of the home page. Text and visuals on the right tend to be more descriptive. Relevant information is presented on the right for clarification and elaboration. The right side breathes more allowing the browser to obtain additional details at a more relaxed pace. Textual descriptions are generally longer on the right than on the left. As an illustration, the arrow icons used for the Hot Links area are pointing right toward the descriptive information of the link.
The distinction between succinct relevant communication on the left and more descriptive, analytical information on the right appears to be consistent with recognized left-right orientations of the brain. Information viewed by the right eye is process by the left hemisphere of the brain while information viewed by the left eye is processed by the right hemisphere of the brain. According to Iaccino left-brain activity tends to be more analytical or ordered requiring large amounts of information to be stored and processed over a period of time (30). Alternately, right-brain activity is capable of "integrating many inputs simultaneously to eventually arrive at a complete configuration (i.e., a gestalt)" (31-32).
Browsers as a result will more likely interact with information contained on the left side of the screen than with descriptive material on the right. This conclusion assumes browsers will need to access information quickly with minimal obstacles. The brief nature of the left symbolizes quick access with minimal interference. CommWeb's goal of influencing interaction with advertiser pages is facilitated through its establishment of numerous links on the left.
CommWeb uses a variety of references to other media. These references establish a metaphoric relationship between the mentioned media type and the medium of the home page, the World Wide Web. The number of occurrences of each media type will change with the interactivity and dynamic nature of the home page. A majority of all traditional media are mentioned at least once on the home page. However, the terms used to relate the Web to other established media appear to fall under one primary category: print. References to print, publishing and journalism, all included in the print medium, surpass all other media references combined. Print associated words mentioned on the home page include "word," "page," "paper," "magazine," "read" and "book."
The apparent reason for this association is to assimilate users of traditional media with the medium of the Web. Establishing familiarity with known and understood media technologies solidifies internal understanding on the part of the browser as they interface with potentially unknown technology. The use of print as the primary medium for association targets the basic denominator common to all communication professionals. Creating familiarity with printed material would accommodate all potential browsers by appealing to the most common base of understanding. Foss echoes the approach of establishing the home page as a visual image through association with print metaphors:
The extensive use of the print metaphor, though, could potentially alienate communication professionals associated with visual media. However, home pages are seen by browsers on television like monitors. The system used to view the page already grounds the presentation with the visual media. The creator's effort appears to be directed toward including those who would have greater reasons to reject interactive media, particularly those in publishing and education. These communication professionals would have stronger ties to print without the exposure to the visual media.
Media references are also made to centers of information or collections of resources. The presentation of CommWeb as a resource center alludes to the traditional information distribution center of the library. The page or print metaphors viewed in light of library-cataloged information establishes CommWeb's credibility with the browser. CommWeb can now be viewed as a reliable and accurate resource center of communication related information despite the electronic dynamics and apparent instability of the medium.
Some specific textual metaphors are used to identify CommWeb as its own singular entity on the Web. The primary identification metaphor is the name of the website: CommWeb. The association of communication with a web establishes the purpose of the website and the function of its home page. Communication primarily occurs between two or more agents in order to transfer information, establish relationships or increase knowledge, awareness and understanding. One characteristic of a web is to connect a variety of interrelated threads into a unified whole. Drawing similarities between the two solidifies CommWeb's purpose of bringing various communication professionals together on common ground in order to develop professional relationships and provide needed information, services and products.
"Web" occurs as an abbreviated form of World Wide Web implying a smaller version of the networked communication system. The word "communication" is also abbreviated from its full form. Abbreviated communication could be a characteristic of communication on the Web and within this website. Communicating textually through language tends to require more time and mental resources. Language in relation to abbreviated communication would appear to be secondary to communicating visually. Visual metaphors would support the concept of abbreviated communication relegating the eloquence of language to the functions it performs in support of visuals. The use of abbreviated terms suggests concise relevant information patterned after the larger webbed model on the Internet. Therefore, CommWeb becomes a inclusive subset of the Web providing clear and concise visually oriented information concerning the communication disciplines.
The other most frequently used textual metaphor is world-wide; "World" meaning the entire earth or realm of known thought, action, intellect or understanding; "Wide" meaning breadth, all encompassing, inclusive and non-exclusional. World-wide establishes CommWeb as the all inclusive collection of communication research, problem-solving resources and helpful devices. The collection of information in CommWeb encompasses the whole world of communication cultures providing resources in television, theater, dance, education, etc.
The predominant visual metaphors used throughout the home page reside within icons. Icons are images combining visual symbols with descriptive text. Sometimes the symbol and the text are combined in a single graphic. In other instances the two are separate but still associated with one another. Stuart Kaplan identifies characteristics which differentiate visual metaphors from language -based metaphors. One characteristic clearly demonstrates CommWeb's use of icons. Kaplan states that "the metaphorical relationship may involve more than one modality" (41). The modality used with each icon is the text combined with the visual symbol. The written text associated with the symbol "may cue the reader to the correct interpretation of the visual sign" (41). Icons within CommWeb demonstrate these characteristics.
The main logo at the top of the page presents the visual sign, CommWeb, with the textual interpretation underneath as "the world-wide resource center for communication professionals." Through the metaphoric relationship of the visual symbol with the text, the identification of the home page is clarified through the use of a visual metaphor. The CommWeb logo also acts as a visual symbol with the text to the right. The association with the "quote-of-the-day" serves to set the tone for the website. The humorous quote with the serious objective geared toward communication professionals makes the interactive experience more enjoyable, acclimating individuals unfamiliar with the technology. The creator of the home page is also presented as a real person. Humor introduces a human element into a predominantly unnatural environment. This suggests interaction with the home page is interaction with an individual. Encouraging interaction with the home page as a real person facilitates the purpose of accumulating hits.
In relation to left-right brain activities Iaccino asserts, "Aspects of metaphor and qualities of humor also appeared to be mediated by the right hemisphere" (Iaccino 9). Humorous aspects accordingly should be oriented for viewing by the left eye. The placement of "quote-of-the-day" on the left conflicts with this assertion. However, the credence given to the visual placement of metaphor on the left establishes the use of left oriented visual metaphors within the home page.
Other sections of the home page function in the same manner. The highlights section uses arrows and "new" symbols with their corresponding descriptors in order to establish the timelines of the highlight information. The content areas of the home page are each identified with a visual symbol and descriptive text. For example, a yellow book with a telephone on top is combined with the words "Yellow Pages" in order to provide a visual representation of the explanation below. The visual metaphors within CommWeb primarily identify the purpose of the website, the function of the home page, the content of information available and the justification for further interaction. The visual metaphors are consistent with the left-right placement metaphor establishing consistency throughout the home page.
As stated earlier, the theory for the evaluation of home page effectiveness is based in part upon the relationship between external and internal metaphors. The closer the identified meanings of internal metaphors are associated with predetermined external metaphors the more interaction will take place. In other words, the closer a website comes to the publicly understood expectations of communicating on the Web the more comfortable browsers will feel about interacting with the website.
The placement metaphors of left and right are not specifically mentioned within the defined external metaphors. A slight reference could be drawn through the home page metaphor. Metaphors existing in an identifiable left-right orientation resemble newspaper and magazine publishing through the use of columns. A two column feel is visually demonstrated within two-thirds of the body of the home page. The "Hot Links" and "What's New" sections are physically divided through the use of a table with borders. The six content areas below are divided into proportional columns with three on the left and three on the right. The header and footer of the home page are also physically divided into left and right placements establishing the association with modern publishing.
The primary media reference within CommWeb relates to the medium of print. The close association with print remains highly consistent with the external metaphor of the home page. Further navigation within CommWeb may reveal a shift in the preferred medium of identification. The importance of establishing the function and purpose of the home page with the print medium, how ever, appears to remain essential for a browser's clear understanding.
The name of the website ties the home page closely with the external metaphor of the World Wide Web. The use of each word of the medium within the logo of the website further expounds upon that relationship. CommWeb as a "world-wide resource" explicitly establishes communication disciplines within the framework or identity of the Web. CommWeb through the abbreviated use of the two terms seeks to make them both inseparable and owing their relationship to the existence of the website.
CommWeb does not attempt to expound upon the information superhighway metaphor. Mini-metaphors in relation to services or content of a superhighway are not provided as a means of identification or clarification. However, despite the absence of such references CommWeb adequately identifies itself through strong associations with the World Wide Web and the medium of print. Combined with the placement of visual metaphors and links on the left side of the home page, CommWeb ensures a high degree of interaction through its strong association with external metaphors.
The identification of the key terms associated with home page communication should be based around what facilitates continual or frequent interaction. The primary means of interaction on the World Wide Web is through hypertext links. How links are clustered in relation to website goals and the effective use of internal metaphors should be the primary focus of examination.
An overwhelming number of links within the home page are located on the left. A ratio of 2:1 exists for the number of links placed upon the left side versus the right side of the page. The location of links on the left is highly consistent with the placement metaphor previously established. Browsers are more likely to select a link due to the highly visible and brief nature of material on the left. The increased probability of interaction will result in continued exposure to the content of the website. The more exposure to the website the increased probability of accessing advertiser pages which is the source of income for Blue Ridge Interactive. Eight direct links to advertiser pages were focused on the left while only three direct links were accessible from the right.
Multiple references to a variety of media are present within the home page. The important consideration, however, resides within the clustering of the predominant media reference of print with hypertext links. Print references and links are evenly distributed through out the page except for one area. The most visible association between print and hypertext links centers around CommWeb's Communication Serials On-Line feature. Six print references cluster around Communication Serials in the Welcome Section of the home page and when the feature is mentioned again in the Resource Center. The importance of this clustering cannot be accurately determined through the sole examination of the website through the representation of the home page. However, a distinct emphasis on this area is decidedly evident.
The primary source for identification of the home page exists within the name, CommWeb. This primary identification term represents the culminated meaning of the purpose and intent of the website. Other important terms associated with the identity of the page include "communication" and "world-wide." The clustering of interactive links with the identity of the website becomes crucial in order to draw a positive correlation for the browser.
The main areas of clustering occur within the "Hot Links" section and the Resource Center section of the home page. Six of the nine hot links contain a key identification word. The Resource Center is also heavily concentrated with six identification terms associated with four links. Overall, the association of identity with links is not entirely consistent or as concentrated as is placement. However, when the identification terms and links are viewed through the placement metaphor the association of identity with links is concentrated primarily on the left side of the home page.
The theory generated through the examination of this paper focused upon the rhetorical means for determining the communicative effectiveness of World Wide Web home pages. Effectiveness was determined through a combination of two methods. The first method focuses on identifying the characteristics of a home page through metaphorical analysis and comparing those with the predominant external metaphors used to define the medium. The second method centers around the identification of key terms for interaction within the home page and the clustering of internal metaphors in order to clearly identify the goal for a website's existence. A home page with a close association between external and internal metaphors and a high degree of goal clarity should produce an effective website. An effective website should accomplish the goal of the website creator through satisfy ing a browser's need for a positive experience through interaction.
CommWeb, as the initial artifact in the application of this theory, rates as an effective website according to the above criteria. The presentation of CommWeb's home page facilitates a high degree of interaction with viewers and produces a positive environment for continued interaction. The association of familiar media with the medium surrounding the home page contributes to this environment. The clarity of the intentions of the website could be improved upon through closer association between the hypertext links and the metaphors of Web identification and media references. However, the visual appeals created by the use of visual and placement metaphors creates a desired "technical novelty" (Foss Visual Images 215). CommWeb's "design is refreshing or innovative and thus stands apart from most images in the environment" (215).
The environment of the World Wide Web demands technical distinctions of home pages in order for websites to be noticed amidst the masses. Continued application of the developed theory will determine its usefulness and practicality as a genuine rhetorical method for interactive artifacts. The process of drawing from established rhetorical principles and applying them effectively to this medium will hopefully contribute to the future examination of interactive media and to the "technical novelty" of this attempt.
[1] Due to the dynamic nature of the World Wide Web, information and style has likely changed since the original evaluation of CommWeb. While specific content or sections may have been added or removed, the general structure, style and layout remain consistent over time with this website. Regardless of the changes, however, it is the focus of this paper to demonstrate particular attributes for a new methodology based upon the rhetorical examination of interactive media. Therefore the analysis should present timely and relevant information.
[2] Other characteristics or demographics are necessary to identify in order to understand the external influences brought to the viewing occasion. However, the ability to acquire demographics or detailed responses concerning individuals communicating through the World Wide Web becomes increasingly complex. A handful of organizations have attempted to capture the identity and characteristics of Internet and Web users. The results of some of their findings are easily available from Websites across the Internet. However, caution is urged when applying an individual report universally across the entire Internet community. Donna Hoffman points out the reliability of using on-line survey techniques to gather information, "Those surveys can only tell you who responded and that they were on the Net" (qtd. in Miller, D6). Hoffman clarifies herself by indicating that some of the data does show some trends. An examination of two separate reports and drawing conclusions based upon the similarities and differences between them will hopefully provide a basic sketch concerning individuals navigating the Web or using the Internet.
Rissa on the Web, an Internet market research company, conducted a thirty-day on-line survey during December 1994 and January 1995 in order to identify certain characteristics of Web users. The Graphics, Visualization and Usability (GVU) Center of the Georgia Institute of Technology also conducted a thirty-day on-line World Wide Web user survey which was concluded on May 10, 1995. Both surveys sharply differed in complexity but were similar in their results identifying certain characteristics of web users. Demographics of an average web user were white males between the ages of 25 and 35 years old. The top three occupational fields of these individuals were Computer -related , Educational, and Professional. The GVU Center survey added that average respondents were married and possessed an average income between $50,000 and $60,000.
These results indicate a potential viewing audience which has some form of higher education and is knowledgeable or comfortable with computerized technology. A high level of technical scrutiny is likely to occur during the viewing occasion of a home page. Any substandard or "newbie" presentation by the page author will potentially result the user leaving the page with a negative opinion, never to return. As an educated audience member a potential user is going to expect relevant content and not a storehouse of links to another site. Substantial, easily accessible content will be essential to a user's continued patronage of a website. The Rissa study also identified 68% of individuals as having a direct connection to the Internet. When combined with the GVU average income information, the likelihood of a user accessing the Web with a high speed (bandwidth) connection, sizable memory and cache storage capabilities, using an advanced web browser is high.
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